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Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

In the 18th century, the emerged as an intellectual and cultural movement across Europe. It was characterized by a focus on reason, science, and individualism, and it represented a shift away from traditional ways of thinking about religion, politics, and society. intellectuals challenged traditional beliefs and bodies of authority, including government and the church.

Political Theories

Traditional Political Theories

Thomas Hobbes

Traditional theories were supported by thinker . Hobbes published his book  as a theory that humans are innately selfish and only interested in gaining wealth or power for themselves. Therefore, humans are incapable of making good choices for the good of others or participating independently in a society without strict regulations. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-B7fSVwYHEtMx.jpg?alt=media&token=de6a9a7c-089d-419c-9e02-12d89902a822

Image Courtesy of Simon & Schuster

Hobbes supported a traditional, authoritarian government with strict leadership that resides in one leader—a king. This style of government is representative of an absolutist monarchy, where a monarchy holds absolute power and is not guided or checked by a parliament or the people it governs.

New Political Theories

John Locke

came out in opposition to Hobbes’ beliefs and popularized "," which is a Latin phrase meaning "blank slate." Locke argued that individuals are born without innate ideas or knowledge and that their mind is a blank slate upon which experiences and learning can be written. Essentially, all knowledge is acquired through experience, behaviors are learned from society, and people are innately good.

Additionally, Locke believed in  among citizens of a nation, which center around the ideas of life, liberty, and property for all men. It is unknown how Locke felt about the rights of women specifically, but he believed that all men are given rights by God. Governments are charged with protecting , not granting them. 

Other thinkers agreed with Locke and began writing more specific ideas in hopes of government reform. Many of these thinkers advocated for a constitutional monarchy over an absolutist monarchy.

Voltaire

wrote about how the English had already formulated a Bill of Rights after the Glorious Revolution and how well it worked within their constitutional monarchy. He believed that should be natural and not governed. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-wlyHwDKuO6AU.jpg?alt=media&token=d60c059c-757a-4c79-ba63-da3334e4f962

Image Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

 wrote about a in which everyone in society has reluctantly agreed to a function. When people are unable to or do not complete their function, society falls out of balance. He believed that men and women had certain gender roles and were unable to switch due to their innate qualities, which made them qualified for specific functions: men for work and women for raising children/homecare. Rousseau did not necessarily want this . In fact, he believed that society enslaves free men, and men resorted to creating governments to protect them from society.

Baron de Montesquieu

was a French aristocrat who wanted to limit the role of the absolutist monarch, so he developed an idea in which governmental power is split between multiple branches that all have the ability to check the power of each other. In essence, Montesquieu proposed the concept of a system of .  

Denis Diderot

wanted to organize information to reach greater audiences. He included writings of several Enlightened thinkers of his time and before him, as well as scientific, historical, and philosophical information into the , a one-stop-shop for information. 

Women’s Rights

Women, especially in France, upheld the beliefs of the thinkers and helped to start and grow conversations about these beliefs in their salons and coffeehouses. However, thinkers did not always support the rights of women, as women were often not considered full citizens. Those who did support the equality of men and women in society, like Montesquieu, often still believed in traditional views of marriage where men dominate the household. 

Others, like Rousseau, believed that women were inferior to men and did not require education to complete their societal duties of producing children and caring for the home. 

Some women wrote on Enlightened thoughts and theories and published their works under the names of their husbands, and some women published their own works despite the beliefs of their male counterparts.

Early Feminism

Mary Wollstonecraft

The most famous female writer of the time was wrote "" in response to Rousseau and other thinkers like him, who sought to limit the rights of women while expanding the rights of men. However, Wollstonecraft's contributions to feminist philosophy and political theory were not limited to "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman." Her literary works, such as her novels and travelogues, were also an important vehicle for her ideas about gender, society, and politics, in addition to the expression of her feminist views.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-6ExJDZ667ecH.jpg?alt=media&token=864b314c-f519-4737-89b5-0e2ab8011b1f

Image Courtesy of Columbia University

Wollstonecraft asserted that women were not naturally inferior to men but that their inferiority resulted from their lack of education and opportunities. She advocated for the education and empowerment of women, arguing that they should have the same rights and opportunities as men, including the right to vote and to hold property. Beyond that, Wollstonecraft also criticized the traditional gender roles and societal expectations of women, arguing that they were limiting and oppressive. She called for women to be treated as rational, autonomous individuals rather than passive and dependent beings.

Wollstonecraft's ideas were ahead of her time and met with resistance, but her work had a significant impact on the feminist movement and on the development of feminist theory.

Economic Theories

The Rise of Capitalism

Adam Smith

Like philosophists, physiocrats studied different economic practices to discover what would work best. The most well-known physiocrat was , who agreed with Francois Quesnay’s idea of . Laissez-faire meant an economy that is free, open, and unregulated by the government. 

took this belief a step further with his publication of . He combined the beliefs of many physiocrats to oppose strict government regulation of the economy. He developed the economic system of capitalism, in which the economy is regulated by supply, demand, and competition. Smith believed those three things would act as an “invisible hand” to guide pricing, products produced, workers, wages, and more. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-FieusV3SfzvL.jpg?alt=media&token=0bc3df8c-c704-42c2-9a29-a42a65d631f0

Image Courtesy of Wikipedia

Religious Theories

Religious Tolerance

championed freedom of choice in religion and argued vehemently against organized religion in Candide. believed in , the belief that there is a God but that this entity does not act in people's daily lives according to traditional beliefs. saw God more as a creator of Earth that watches how people interact in accordance with others and with science. Therefore, religion should not have an impactful role in policymaking and should not be forced upon a population. He argued for religious toleration in his Treatise on Toleration.

Religious Skepticism

Enlightened philosophes believed in skepticism, a doubt in anything one believes to know or holds true. However, some philosophes, like David Hume or Immanuel Kant, began questioning whether or not people have the ability to understand the world around them with any degree of accuracy. Skepticism threatened Christian dominance in Europe because as people continued to demand proof for their understanding, people became more adverse to simply accepting religious doctrine as fact.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-zrzM7K978TbE.png?alt=media&token=be217162-b2d8-432b-aad7-710bacb5278d

Image Courtesy of Engagewithease

🎥 Watch: AP Europe - Enlightenment

Key Terms to Review (26)

A Vindication of Rights of Women

: Written by Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, "A Vindication of Rights of Women" is one of the earliest works advocating for equality between men and women. It argues that women are not naturally inferior to men but appear so because they lack education.

A Wealth of Nations

: "A Wealth of Nations" is a book written by Adam Smith in 1776 that outlines the principles of free market economics and capitalism.

Adam Smith

: Adam Smith was an 18th-century Scottish economist, philosopher, and author who is considered the father of modern economics. He wrote "The Wealth of Nations," where he introduced the concept of the 'invisible hand' guiding market economies.

Baron de Montesquieu

: Baron de Montesquieu was a French lawyer and philosopher during the Age of Enlightenment who is best known for his works on separation of powers within government systems.

Checks And Balances

: Checks And Balances is a system that allows each branch of a government to amend or veto acts of another branch so as to prevent any one branch from exerting too much power.

Deism

: A philosophical belief that posits God exists but does not interfere with the natural world; it also rejects organized religions' claims about divine revelations.

Denis Diderot

: Denis Diderot was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer during the Enlightenment era. He is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopédie.

Early Feminism

: Early feminism refers to the period when the first feminists began advocating for equal rights for women, particularly during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Encyclopedie

: The Encyclopedie was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772 with later supplements included. It represented a comprehensive work of knowledge accumulated at that time.

Enlightenment

: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 17th to 19th century. It emphasized reason, analysis, and individualism rather than traditional lines of authority.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

: Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought.

John Locke

: John Locke was an influential Enlightenment thinker known for his contributions to political philosophy. His ideas about natural rights and government greatly influenced democratic thought.

Laissez-faire Economics

: An economic theory that advocates for minimal government intervention in the economy, allowing individuals to make their own business decisions.

Letters on the English

: Also known as "Letters Concerning the English Nation," this is a series of essays written by Voltaire based on his experiences living in England between 1726 and 1729 (compared to France).

Leviathan

: "Leviathan" is a book written by Thomas Hobbes published in 1651. It argues for a social contract and rule by an absolute sovereign. The title comes from the biblical sea monster used as a metaphor for the state's vast and frightening power.

Mary Wollstonecraft

: An English writer and philosopher, Mary Wollstonecraft is considered one of the founding feminist philosophers. She advocated for women's rights during the 18th century, particularly in education.

Natural Rights

: Natural rights are basic rights and freedoms to which all individuals are considered entitled, regardless of nationality, sex, ethnicity, religion, or other characteristics. These often include rights to life, liberty and property.

Religious Skepticism

: This refers to doubting or questioning religious doctrines or principles. It doesn't necessarily mean disbelief but rather an open-minded approach towards religion.

Religious Tolerance

: Acceptance of religious beliefs that are different from one's own.

Social Contract

: The Social Contract is a theory that people live together in society in accordance with an agreement that establishes moral and political rules of behavior. It suggests that people give up some freedoms to a government or other authority in order to receive or maintain social order.

Tabula Rasa

: Tabula Rasa is Latin for "blank slate." It's a concept in philosophy proposed by John Locke which suggests that at birth the human mind is essentially empty and that all ideas are formed through experience.

The Rise of Capitalism

: The rise of capitalism refers to the period when capitalism became the dominant economic system in Europe during the late Middle Ages. It marked a shift from feudal economies based on agriculture and barter to economies based on money and commerce.

Thomas Hobbes

: Thomas Hobbes was a 17th-century English philosopher who is best known for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book "Leviathan" established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.

Voltaire

: Voltaire was a French Enlightenment philosopher, writer, and historian known for his wit, criticism of Christianity—especially the Roman Catholic Church—and advocacy of freedom of speech, religion, and separation of church and state.

Voltaire's Treatise on Toleration

: This is a work by the French philosopher Voltaire, published in 1763, advocating for religious tolerance and freedom of thought. It was a response to the intolerance and fanaticism he saw in France, particularly after the execution of Jean Calas.

Women's Rights in Enlightenment Era

: During the Enlightenment era, some thinkers began to argue for improved legal and social status for women, including rights to education and property. However, these ideas were not widely accepted until later periods.
Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

In the 18th century, the emerged as an intellectual and cultural movement across Europe. It was characterized by a focus on reason, science, and individualism, and it represented a shift away from traditional ways of thinking about religion, politics, and society. intellectuals challenged traditional beliefs and bodies of authority, including government and the church.

Political Theories

Traditional Political Theories

Thomas Hobbes

Traditional theories were supported by thinker . Hobbes published his book  as a theory that humans are innately selfish and only interested in gaining wealth or power for themselves. Therefore, humans are incapable of making good choices for the good of others or participating independently in a society without strict regulations. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-B7fSVwYHEtMx.jpg?alt=media&token=de6a9a7c-089d-419c-9e02-12d89902a822

Image Courtesy of Simon & Schuster

Hobbes supported a traditional, authoritarian government with strict leadership that resides in one leader—a king. This style of government is representative of an absolutist monarchy, where a monarchy holds absolute power and is not guided or checked by a parliament or the people it governs.

New Political Theories

John Locke

came out in opposition to Hobbes’ beliefs and popularized "," which is a Latin phrase meaning "blank slate." Locke argued that individuals are born without innate ideas or knowledge and that their mind is a blank slate upon which experiences and learning can be written. Essentially, all knowledge is acquired through experience, behaviors are learned from society, and people are innately good.

Additionally, Locke believed in  among citizens of a nation, which center around the ideas of life, liberty, and property for all men. It is unknown how Locke felt about the rights of women specifically, but he believed that all men are given rights by God. Governments are charged with protecting , not granting them. 

Other thinkers agreed with Locke and began writing more specific ideas in hopes of government reform. Many of these thinkers advocated for a constitutional monarchy over an absolutist monarchy.

Voltaire

wrote about how the English had already formulated a Bill of Rights after the Glorious Revolution and how well it worked within their constitutional monarchy. He believed that should be natural and not governed. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-wlyHwDKuO6AU.jpg?alt=media&token=d60c059c-757a-4c79-ba63-da3334e4f962

Image Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

 wrote about a in which everyone in society has reluctantly agreed to a function. When people are unable to or do not complete their function, society falls out of balance. He believed that men and women had certain gender roles and were unable to switch due to their innate qualities, which made them qualified for specific functions: men for work and women for raising children/homecare. Rousseau did not necessarily want this . In fact, he believed that society enslaves free men, and men resorted to creating governments to protect them from society.

Baron de Montesquieu

was a French aristocrat who wanted to limit the role of the absolutist monarch, so he developed an idea in which governmental power is split between multiple branches that all have the ability to check the power of each other. In essence, Montesquieu proposed the concept of a system of .  

Denis Diderot

wanted to organize information to reach greater audiences. He included writings of several Enlightened thinkers of his time and before him, as well as scientific, historical, and philosophical information into the , a one-stop-shop for information. 

Women’s Rights

Women, especially in France, upheld the beliefs of the thinkers and helped to start and grow conversations about these beliefs in their salons and coffeehouses. However, thinkers did not always support the rights of women, as women were often not considered full citizens. Those who did support the equality of men and women in society, like Montesquieu, often still believed in traditional views of marriage where men dominate the household. 

Others, like Rousseau, believed that women were inferior to men and did not require education to complete their societal duties of producing children and caring for the home. 

Some women wrote on Enlightened thoughts and theories and published their works under the names of their husbands, and some women published their own works despite the beliefs of their male counterparts.

Early Feminism

Mary Wollstonecraft

The most famous female writer of the time was wrote "" in response to Rousseau and other thinkers like him, who sought to limit the rights of women while expanding the rights of men. However, Wollstonecraft's contributions to feminist philosophy and political theory were not limited to "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman." Her literary works, such as her novels and travelogues, were also an important vehicle for her ideas about gender, society, and politics, in addition to the expression of her feminist views.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-6ExJDZ667ecH.jpg?alt=media&token=864b314c-f519-4737-89b5-0e2ab8011b1f

Image Courtesy of Columbia University

Wollstonecraft asserted that women were not naturally inferior to men but that their inferiority resulted from their lack of education and opportunities. She advocated for the education and empowerment of women, arguing that they should have the same rights and opportunities as men, including the right to vote and to hold property. Beyond that, Wollstonecraft also criticized the traditional gender roles and societal expectations of women, arguing that they were limiting and oppressive. She called for women to be treated as rational, autonomous individuals rather than passive and dependent beings.

Wollstonecraft's ideas were ahead of her time and met with resistance, but her work had a significant impact on the feminist movement and on the development of feminist theory.

Economic Theories

The Rise of Capitalism

Adam Smith

Like philosophists, physiocrats studied different economic practices to discover what would work best. The most well-known physiocrat was , who agreed with Francois Quesnay’s idea of . Laissez-faire meant an economy that is free, open, and unregulated by the government. 

took this belief a step further with his publication of . He combined the beliefs of many physiocrats to oppose strict government regulation of the economy. He developed the economic system of capitalism, in which the economy is regulated by supply, demand, and competition. Smith believed those three things would act as an “invisible hand” to guide pricing, products produced, workers, wages, and more. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-FieusV3SfzvL.jpg?alt=media&token=0bc3df8c-c704-42c2-9a29-a42a65d631f0

Image Courtesy of Wikipedia

Religious Theories

Religious Tolerance

championed freedom of choice in religion and argued vehemently against organized religion in Candide. believed in , the belief that there is a God but that this entity does not act in people's daily lives according to traditional beliefs. saw God more as a creator of Earth that watches how people interact in accordance with others and with science. Therefore, religion should not have an impactful role in policymaking and should not be forced upon a population. He argued for religious toleration in his Treatise on Toleration.

Religious Skepticism

Enlightened philosophes believed in skepticism, a doubt in anything one believes to know or holds true. However, some philosophes, like David Hume or Immanuel Kant, began questioning whether or not people have the ability to understand the world around them with any degree of accuracy. Skepticism threatened Christian dominance in Europe because as people continued to demand proof for their understanding, people became more adverse to simply accepting religious doctrine as fact.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-zrzM7K978TbE.png?alt=media&token=be217162-b2d8-432b-aad7-710bacb5278d

Image Courtesy of Engagewithease

🎥 Watch: AP Europe - Enlightenment

Key Terms to Review (26)

A Vindication of Rights of Women

: Written by Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, "A Vindication of Rights of Women" is one of the earliest works advocating for equality between men and women. It argues that women are not naturally inferior to men but appear so because they lack education.

A Wealth of Nations

: "A Wealth of Nations" is a book written by Adam Smith in 1776 that outlines the principles of free market economics and capitalism.

Adam Smith

: Adam Smith was an 18th-century Scottish economist, philosopher, and author who is considered the father of modern economics. He wrote "The Wealth of Nations," where he introduced the concept of the 'invisible hand' guiding market economies.

Baron de Montesquieu

: Baron de Montesquieu was a French lawyer and philosopher during the Age of Enlightenment who is best known for his works on separation of powers within government systems.

Checks And Balances

: Checks And Balances is a system that allows each branch of a government to amend or veto acts of another branch so as to prevent any one branch from exerting too much power.

Deism

: A philosophical belief that posits God exists but does not interfere with the natural world; it also rejects organized religions' claims about divine revelations.

Denis Diderot

: Denis Diderot was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer during the Enlightenment era. He is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopédie.

Early Feminism

: Early feminism refers to the period when the first feminists began advocating for equal rights for women, particularly during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Encyclopedie

: The Encyclopedie was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772 with later supplements included. It represented a comprehensive work of knowledge accumulated at that time.

Enlightenment

: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 17th to 19th century. It emphasized reason, analysis, and individualism rather than traditional lines of authority.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

: Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought.

John Locke

: John Locke was an influential Enlightenment thinker known for his contributions to political philosophy. His ideas about natural rights and government greatly influenced democratic thought.

Laissez-faire Economics

: An economic theory that advocates for minimal government intervention in the economy, allowing individuals to make their own business decisions.

Letters on the English

: Also known as "Letters Concerning the English Nation," this is a series of essays written by Voltaire based on his experiences living in England between 1726 and 1729 (compared to France).

Leviathan

: "Leviathan" is a book written by Thomas Hobbes published in 1651. It argues for a social contract and rule by an absolute sovereign. The title comes from the biblical sea monster used as a metaphor for the state's vast and frightening power.

Mary Wollstonecraft

: An English writer and philosopher, Mary Wollstonecraft is considered one of the founding feminist philosophers. She advocated for women's rights during the 18th century, particularly in education.

Natural Rights

: Natural rights are basic rights and freedoms to which all individuals are considered entitled, regardless of nationality, sex, ethnicity, religion, or other characteristics. These often include rights to life, liberty and property.

Religious Skepticism

: This refers to doubting or questioning religious doctrines or principles. It doesn't necessarily mean disbelief but rather an open-minded approach towards religion.

Religious Tolerance

: Acceptance of religious beliefs that are different from one's own.

Social Contract

: The Social Contract is a theory that people live together in society in accordance with an agreement that establishes moral and political rules of behavior. It suggests that people give up some freedoms to a government or other authority in order to receive or maintain social order.

Tabula Rasa

: Tabula Rasa is Latin for "blank slate." It's a concept in philosophy proposed by John Locke which suggests that at birth the human mind is essentially empty and that all ideas are formed through experience.

The Rise of Capitalism

: The rise of capitalism refers to the period when capitalism became the dominant economic system in Europe during the late Middle Ages. It marked a shift from feudal economies based on agriculture and barter to economies based on money and commerce.

Thomas Hobbes

: Thomas Hobbes was a 17th-century English philosopher who is best known for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book "Leviathan" established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.

Voltaire

: Voltaire was a French Enlightenment philosopher, writer, and historian known for his wit, criticism of Christianity—especially the Roman Catholic Church—and advocacy of freedom of speech, religion, and separation of church and state.

Voltaire's Treatise on Toleration

: This is a work by the French philosopher Voltaire, published in 1763, advocating for religious tolerance and freedom of thought. It was a response to the intolerance and fanaticism he saw in France, particularly after the execution of Jean Calas.

Women's Rights in Enlightenment Era

: During the Enlightenment era, some thinkers began to argue for improved legal and social status for women, including rights to education and property. However, these ideas were not widely accepted until later periods.


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© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.