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4.2 The Scientific Revolution

5 min readjanuary 21, 2023

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

New Ideas and Methods

Individualism and a belief in logic among humans inspired intellectuals of the time to read and study . 💭 Many found discrepancies and flaws in these ancient Greek and Roman texts and began experimenting with their own observations and tests to prove or disprove the writings.

The Scientific Method

In 1621, a lawyer and philosopher, , published the . It was a formal series of steps in which one could form a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, and develop a conclusion based on that test. Then, one could take that conclusion, if insufficient, and retest using different methods or criteria. 

Bacon believed in the - that all knowledge is derived from observation and sense-based information. He also believed that information should be tested through this method, and once tested, conclusions should be made. This style of reasoning is called - where limited evidence is needed to prove something true, and generalizations are made based on observations. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-YG8270shRGf8.png?alt=media&token=6a739a5b-43fe-4781-837c-c641e0c899b7

Image Courtesy of Teiro

Example: I see a bird outside, and it is white. Therefore, all birds I see are white.

In 1637, mathematician and philosopher  published his method of reasoning, also using the . However, Descartes believed in , in which information is collected, patterns are recognized, and then the is used. is more accurate than .

Example: I study birds of different kinds from different locations and notice many different colors. I note that brightly colored birds tend to hail from tropical areas, white birds mainly live close to oceans, and black-feathered birds remain inland. While not all patterns are true for each bird, it is much more specific than the generalizations proposed by . 🐦

Anatomy and Medicine

The previously accepted proposed that there were four main liquids in the body that required balance: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Common belief saw pain as a result of these fluids being out of balance, contaminated, or not mixed properly.

During the Scientific Revolution, scientists began studying the human anatomy, bodily systems, and medicine to better understand how to combat illnesses, which challenged the classical ideas proposed by , a Greek physician.

William Harvey

The most important discovery of this time regarding human was ’s discovery of . Harvey employed extensive observations and experiments, and his work provided a new understanding of the circulatory system as a whole, which was widely accepted and adopted by the medical community. After Harvey disproved the formerly accepted humoral theory and proposed an integrated human body, other scientists began to study the functions of the human body during the development of , which revolutionized how people understood anatomy and disease.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-wWax98epgROg.jpg?alt=media&token=94c5d7a6-e861-48a1-bba4-46b134d05182

Image Courtesy of Western Civilization II Guides

New Technology and Medical Practices  

The development of the and the discovery of also played a significant role in challenging traditional beliefs about the causes of disease. Scientists could now observe small organisms, such as bacteria and viruses. Additionally, the scientific revolution also saw the rise of new medical practices such as and the use of anatomy and in diagnosis and treatment.

Astronomy and Alchemy

Developments in Astronomy

Nicholas Copernicus developed the in opposition to the . Copernicus shared his theory that all planets in our solar system revolve around the sun with other scientists. However, the Catholic Church’s doctrine stated that , in which all planets revolve around Earth, was the accepted belief, and no one had challenged it with any authenticity before Copernicus. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-n78ZzXfwIISA.jpg?alt=media&token=e5b53e91-8592-4792-ada5-d04dabf57e6b

Image Courtesy of Little Thinkers Blog

  1. The : The most significant contribution to astronomy during the scientific revolution was the development of the heliocentric model of the solar system by Copernicus, which proposed that the sun, not the earth, was at the center of the solar system. This challenged the traditional geocentric model, which placed the earth at the center of the universe.

  2. : formulated three laws of planetary motion, which accurately described the motion of planets around the sun. This was a major advancement in astronomy, as it helped explain the observed motion of planets.

  3. Galileo's telescope: Galileo Galilei's development and use of the telescope to observe the night sky led to several important discoveries, including the observation of mountains on the moon, the phases of Venus, and the presence of four large moons orbiting Jupiter. By tracking planetary motion, Galileo found that Earth did move within the solar system, supporting Copernicus' proposals of heliocentricism.

  4. : The scientific revolution saw the , such as comets, nebulae, and galaxies, which expanded the understanding of the universe.

  5. : The invention of more advanced astronomical instruments, such as the sextant and the quadrant, improved the accuracy of astronomical measurements and allowed for more detailed observations of the sky.

  6. The introduction of mathematical methods: Introduction of mathematical methods to the field of astronomy improved the accuracy of astronomical predictions. , through the use of mathematics, developed the , which proved that Earth revolves around the sun. 

While none of these ideas were accepted by the Catholic Church at the time, they later became widely accepted by society. Galileo was silenced by the and placed on house arrest after a trial in which he was forced to retract his original statements supporting the . Copernicus never even published his own works. They were actually published on his behalf after his death due to his fear of persecution and excommunication from the Catholic Church.

Thus, alchemy and astrology saw the influence of science in creating predictable and reliable knowledge of the universe. However, the Church continued to emphasize that the cosmos was governed by spiritual forces.

🎥 Watch: AP Euro - Scientific Revolution

Key Terms to Review (32)

Anatomy and Medicine

: Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms, while medicine is the science and practice of diagnosing, treating, or preventing diseases.

Astronomy and Alchemy

: Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects, space, and physical universe as whole while alchemy is an ancient branch of natural philosophy which attempted to convert base metals into gold among other things.

Blood Circulation

: Blood circulation is the constant movement of blood throughout the body, carried by the heart. It supplies oxygen and nutrients to our cells and carries away waste products.

Catholic Church Doctrine

: The Catholic Church Doctrine refers to the teachings and principles set forth by the Roman Catholic Church, which are considered authoritative and binding for its members.

Classical Writings

: These are texts written during antiquity (ancient Greece or Rome) that have had a profound influence on European culture. They include works of literature, philosophy, history, mathematics etc.

Deductive Reasoning

: A type of logic where one goes from a general statement to a specific conclusion. It's like solving a puzzle - you start with an overview picture (general statement) then place each piece (specific conclusion) where it fits.

Discovery of New Astronomical Objects

: The discovery of new astronomical objects refers to the process and moment when astronomers identify previously unknown stars, planets, galaxies, or other celestial bodies.

Empirical Theory

: Empirical theory refers to propositions or knowledge based on experience or observed facts rather than theoretical deductions or assumptions.

Francis Bacon

: Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, and author who is known for promoting the scientific method during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century.

Galen

: Galen was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. He is considered one of the most accomplished medical researchers in Ancient history. His theories dominated European medicine for over 1,000 years.

Galileo Galilei's Telescope

: The telescope used by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1609 was one of his most significant contributions to astronomy. It allowed him to observe celestial bodies more closely than ever before, leading to many important discoveries including Jupiter’s moons.

Geocentric Theory

: The geocentric theory is an outdated astronomical model that proposed Earth as the center of the universe, with all other celestial bodies revolving around it.

Heliocentric Theory

: The heliocentric theory is an astronomical model suggesting that all planets revolve around the sun which sits at the center of our solar system. This theory was first proposed by Nicholas Copernicus.

Humoral Theory of Disease

: The Humoral Theory of Disease is a medical concept from Ancient Greece that suggests the body is made up of four "humors" or fluids - blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Health was believed to be maintained by a balance of these humors.

Improved Astronomical Instruments

: These are the advanced tools and devices developed during the Scientific Revolution that allowed for more accurate observations of celestial bodies. They include telescopes, sextants, and astrolabes.

Inductive Reasoning

: Inductive reasoning is a type of logical thinking that involves forming generalizations based on specific observations or experiences.

Inquisition of the Church

: The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church tasked with identifying, suppressing, and punishing heresy - beliefs or practices contrary to church doctrine. It began around 12th century and lasted until 19th century.

Isaac Newton

: Isaac Newton was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, theologian who is widely recognized as one of the most influential scientists ever. His laws of motion and universal gravitation laid much groundwork for classical physics.

Johannes Kepler

: Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer in the 17th century. He is best known for his laws of planetary motion, which laid the groundwork for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

: Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion are three scientific laws describing the motion of planets around the Sun. They state that orbits are ellipses with the Sun at one focus; planets sweep out equal areas in equal times; and there is a relationship between a planet's orbital period and its distance from the Sun.

Mathematical Methods in Astronomy

: These are techniques involving calculations and equations that scientists use to predict planetary motion, understand gravitational forces, etc. This includes trigonometry and calculus.

Microorganisms

: Microorganisms, also known as microbes, are tiny living organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. They include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.

Microscope

: A microscope is an instrument used for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by naked eyes. It magnifies these objects so we can study their details closely.

New Ideas and Methods

: This refers to the innovative concepts, theories, and techniques that emerged during the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods in Europe. These new ideas challenged traditional beliefs and paved the way for modern thinking.

Nicholas Copernicus

: Nicholas Copernicus was a Polish astronomer in the Renaissance period who proposed the heliocentric theory, which states that the sun is at the center of the solar system and all planets revolve around it.

Physiology

: Physiology is a branch of biology that studies how organisms function or work. It looks at how various body systems interact to help an organism survive and thrive.

Ptolemy’s 2nd-century Geocentric Theory

: Ptolemy's Geocentric Theory posits that Earth is at the center of our solar system with all other celestial bodies revolving around it.

Rene Descartes

: A French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who is often referred to as the "father of modern philosophy." He is best known for his philosophical statement "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am).

Scientific Method

: A systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence that was crucial to the evolution of science in the modern world. It involves observing, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and drawing conclusions.

Surgery

: Surgery is a medical procedure involving an incision with instruments; performed to repair damage or arrest disease in a living body.

Three Laws of Motion

: The Three Laws of Motion, formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, describe how objects move. They include the law of inertia (an object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by a force), the law of acceleration (force equals mass times acceleration), and the law of action-reaction (for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction).

William Harvey

: William Harvey was an English physician who made groundbreaking contributions to anatomy and physiology. He is best known for his discovery of the circulation of blood around the body, pumped by the heart.

4.2 The Scientific Revolution

5 min readjanuary 21, 2023

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

New Ideas and Methods

Individualism and a belief in logic among humans inspired intellectuals of the time to read and study . 💭 Many found discrepancies and flaws in these ancient Greek and Roman texts and began experimenting with their own observations and tests to prove or disprove the writings.

The Scientific Method

In 1621, a lawyer and philosopher, , published the . It was a formal series of steps in which one could form a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, and develop a conclusion based on that test. Then, one could take that conclusion, if insufficient, and retest using different methods or criteria. 

Bacon believed in the - that all knowledge is derived from observation and sense-based information. He also believed that information should be tested through this method, and once tested, conclusions should be made. This style of reasoning is called - where limited evidence is needed to prove something true, and generalizations are made based on observations. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-YG8270shRGf8.png?alt=media&token=6a739a5b-43fe-4781-837c-c641e0c899b7

Image Courtesy of Teiro

Example: I see a bird outside, and it is white. Therefore, all birds I see are white.

In 1637, mathematician and philosopher  published his method of reasoning, also using the . However, Descartes believed in , in which information is collected, patterns are recognized, and then the is used. is more accurate than .

Example: I study birds of different kinds from different locations and notice many different colors. I note that brightly colored birds tend to hail from tropical areas, white birds mainly live close to oceans, and black-feathered birds remain inland. While not all patterns are true for each bird, it is much more specific than the generalizations proposed by . 🐦

Anatomy and Medicine

The previously accepted proposed that there were four main liquids in the body that required balance: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Common belief saw pain as a result of these fluids being out of balance, contaminated, or not mixed properly.

During the Scientific Revolution, scientists began studying the human anatomy, bodily systems, and medicine to better understand how to combat illnesses, which challenged the classical ideas proposed by , a Greek physician.

William Harvey

The most important discovery of this time regarding human was ’s discovery of . Harvey employed extensive observations and experiments, and his work provided a new understanding of the circulatory system as a whole, which was widely accepted and adopted by the medical community. After Harvey disproved the formerly accepted humoral theory and proposed an integrated human body, other scientists began to study the functions of the human body during the development of , which revolutionized how people understood anatomy and disease.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-wWax98epgROg.jpg?alt=media&token=94c5d7a6-e861-48a1-bba4-46b134d05182

Image Courtesy of Western Civilization II Guides

New Technology and Medical Practices  

The development of the and the discovery of also played a significant role in challenging traditional beliefs about the causes of disease. Scientists could now observe small organisms, such as bacteria and viruses. Additionally, the scientific revolution also saw the rise of new medical practices such as and the use of anatomy and in diagnosis and treatment.

Astronomy and Alchemy

Developments in Astronomy

Nicholas Copernicus developed the in opposition to the . Copernicus shared his theory that all planets in our solar system revolve around the sun with other scientists. However, the Catholic Church’s doctrine stated that , in which all planets revolve around Earth, was the accepted belief, and no one had challenged it with any authenticity before Copernicus. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-n78ZzXfwIISA.jpg?alt=media&token=e5b53e91-8592-4792-ada5-d04dabf57e6b

Image Courtesy of Little Thinkers Blog

  1. The : The most significant contribution to astronomy during the scientific revolution was the development of the heliocentric model of the solar system by Copernicus, which proposed that the sun, not the earth, was at the center of the solar system. This challenged the traditional geocentric model, which placed the earth at the center of the universe.

  2. : formulated three laws of planetary motion, which accurately described the motion of planets around the sun. This was a major advancement in astronomy, as it helped explain the observed motion of planets.

  3. Galileo's telescope: Galileo Galilei's development and use of the telescope to observe the night sky led to several important discoveries, including the observation of mountains on the moon, the phases of Venus, and the presence of four large moons orbiting Jupiter. By tracking planetary motion, Galileo found that Earth did move within the solar system, supporting Copernicus' proposals of heliocentricism.

  4. : The scientific revolution saw the , such as comets, nebulae, and galaxies, which expanded the understanding of the universe.

  5. : The invention of more advanced astronomical instruments, such as the sextant and the quadrant, improved the accuracy of astronomical measurements and allowed for more detailed observations of the sky.

  6. The introduction of mathematical methods: Introduction of mathematical methods to the field of astronomy improved the accuracy of astronomical predictions. , through the use of mathematics, developed the , which proved that Earth revolves around the sun. 

While none of these ideas were accepted by the Catholic Church at the time, they later became widely accepted by society. Galileo was silenced by the and placed on house arrest after a trial in which he was forced to retract his original statements supporting the . Copernicus never even published his own works. They were actually published on his behalf after his death due to his fear of persecution and excommunication from the Catholic Church.

Thus, alchemy and astrology saw the influence of science in creating predictable and reliable knowledge of the universe. However, the Church continued to emphasize that the cosmos was governed by spiritual forces.

🎥 Watch: AP Euro - Scientific Revolution

Key Terms to Review (32)

Anatomy and Medicine

: Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms, while medicine is the science and practice of diagnosing, treating, or preventing diseases.

Astronomy and Alchemy

: Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects, space, and physical universe as whole while alchemy is an ancient branch of natural philosophy which attempted to convert base metals into gold among other things.

Blood Circulation

: Blood circulation is the constant movement of blood throughout the body, carried by the heart. It supplies oxygen and nutrients to our cells and carries away waste products.

Catholic Church Doctrine

: The Catholic Church Doctrine refers to the teachings and principles set forth by the Roman Catholic Church, which are considered authoritative and binding for its members.

Classical Writings

: These are texts written during antiquity (ancient Greece or Rome) that have had a profound influence on European culture. They include works of literature, philosophy, history, mathematics etc.

Deductive Reasoning

: A type of logic where one goes from a general statement to a specific conclusion. It's like solving a puzzle - you start with an overview picture (general statement) then place each piece (specific conclusion) where it fits.

Discovery of New Astronomical Objects

: The discovery of new astronomical objects refers to the process and moment when astronomers identify previously unknown stars, planets, galaxies, or other celestial bodies.

Empirical Theory

: Empirical theory refers to propositions or knowledge based on experience or observed facts rather than theoretical deductions or assumptions.

Francis Bacon

: Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, and author who is known for promoting the scientific method during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century.

Galen

: Galen was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. He is considered one of the most accomplished medical researchers in Ancient history. His theories dominated European medicine for over 1,000 years.

Galileo Galilei's Telescope

: The telescope used by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1609 was one of his most significant contributions to astronomy. It allowed him to observe celestial bodies more closely than ever before, leading to many important discoveries including Jupiter’s moons.

Geocentric Theory

: The geocentric theory is an outdated astronomical model that proposed Earth as the center of the universe, with all other celestial bodies revolving around it.

Heliocentric Theory

: The heliocentric theory is an astronomical model suggesting that all planets revolve around the sun which sits at the center of our solar system. This theory was first proposed by Nicholas Copernicus.

Humoral Theory of Disease

: The Humoral Theory of Disease is a medical concept from Ancient Greece that suggests the body is made up of four "humors" or fluids - blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Health was believed to be maintained by a balance of these humors.

Improved Astronomical Instruments

: These are the advanced tools and devices developed during the Scientific Revolution that allowed for more accurate observations of celestial bodies. They include telescopes, sextants, and astrolabes.

Inductive Reasoning

: Inductive reasoning is a type of logical thinking that involves forming generalizations based on specific observations or experiences.

Inquisition of the Church

: The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church tasked with identifying, suppressing, and punishing heresy - beliefs or practices contrary to church doctrine. It began around 12th century and lasted until 19th century.

Isaac Newton

: Isaac Newton was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, theologian who is widely recognized as one of the most influential scientists ever. His laws of motion and universal gravitation laid much groundwork for classical physics.

Johannes Kepler

: Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer in the 17th century. He is best known for his laws of planetary motion, which laid the groundwork for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

: Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion are three scientific laws describing the motion of planets around the Sun. They state that orbits are ellipses with the Sun at one focus; planets sweep out equal areas in equal times; and there is a relationship between a planet's orbital period and its distance from the Sun.

Mathematical Methods in Astronomy

: These are techniques involving calculations and equations that scientists use to predict planetary motion, understand gravitational forces, etc. This includes trigonometry and calculus.

Microorganisms

: Microorganisms, also known as microbes, are tiny living organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. They include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.

Microscope

: A microscope is an instrument used for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by naked eyes. It magnifies these objects so we can study their details closely.

New Ideas and Methods

: This refers to the innovative concepts, theories, and techniques that emerged during the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods in Europe. These new ideas challenged traditional beliefs and paved the way for modern thinking.

Nicholas Copernicus

: Nicholas Copernicus was a Polish astronomer in the Renaissance period who proposed the heliocentric theory, which states that the sun is at the center of the solar system and all planets revolve around it.

Physiology

: Physiology is a branch of biology that studies how organisms function or work. It looks at how various body systems interact to help an organism survive and thrive.

Ptolemy’s 2nd-century Geocentric Theory

: Ptolemy's Geocentric Theory posits that Earth is at the center of our solar system with all other celestial bodies revolving around it.

Rene Descartes

: A French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who is often referred to as the "father of modern philosophy." He is best known for his philosophical statement "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am).

Scientific Method

: A systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence that was crucial to the evolution of science in the modern world. It involves observing, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and drawing conclusions.

Surgery

: Surgery is a medical procedure involving an incision with instruments; performed to repair damage or arrest disease in a living body.

Three Laws of Motion

: The Three Laws of Motion, formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, describe how objects move. They include the law of inertia (an object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by a force), the law of acceleration (force equals mass times acceleration), and the law of action-reaction (for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction).

William Harvey

: William Harvey was an English physician who made groundbreaking contributions to anatomy and physiology. He is best known for his discovery of the circulation of blood around the body, pumped by the heart.


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AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.