🇪🇺ap european history review
1.5 New Monarchies: 1450 - 1648
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New Monarchs: What Are They?
With the Renaissance, many European monarchs sought to consolidate power by reducing the influence of the Catholic Church and feudal nobility. These New Monarchs centralized authority in several ways:
- Limited the Power of the Feudal Aristocracy: New Monarchs weakened the traditional nobility (Nobles of the Sword) and formed alliances with towns and the emerging middle class.
- Nobles of the Robe: A new class of nobility created by New Monarchs who granted noble titles in exchange for financial support.
- Nobles of the Sword: The older aristocratic class, whose status was based on hereditary land ownership and medieval military service.
⭐ New Monarchs sought to fund their governments by selling noble titles to Nobles of the Robe, thereby weakening the traditional power of the Nobles of the Sword.
- Created Efficient, Centralized Bureaucracies & Systems of Taxation: New Monarchs developed professional bureaucracies, councils, and committees to codify laws, oversee taxation, and administer justice, reducing reliance on feudal lords.
- Maintained a Loyal Standing Army Funded by the State: Unlike the medieval period, which depended on feudal lords to provide troops during wartime, New Monarchs established permanent, professional armies directly controlled by the state.
- Cavalry forces were reduced in favor of artillery and infantry.
- France, under Charles VII, exemplified this shift by creating a permanent professional army.
- Encouraged and Developed a Sense of National Identity: Strengthened national identity by promoting vernacular languages, state-sponsored propaganda, and common legal codes.
- Controlled and Regulated the Clergy: New Monarchs reduced the Pope’s influence by increasing royal control over religious institutions within their kingdoms.
These policies differentiated New Monarchs from medieval kings, who had been dependent on the Church and feudal lords. By weakening these competing sources of power, New Monarchs laid the groundwork for the modern secular state.
New Monarchs in Spain and England
Spain: Ferdinand & Isabella
After centuries of Muslim rule, Spain was reunified under Iberian customs following the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469. Their rule exemplified New Monarchy through several reforms:
- Implemented a centralized tax system to strengthen royal finances.
- Excluded the nobility from royal councils to reduce aristocratic influence over policy.
- Employed the Hermandades, a standing militia loyal to the monarchy rather than feudal lords.
- Forced the Catholic Church under royal control through agreements with the Papacy.
While these policies reflected New Monarchy, Ferdinand and Isabella went further, ==using religion as a tool of state power.==
Under the Spanish Inquisition, they expelled Jews in 1492 and Muslims in 1502, enforcing religious uniformity to solidify national identity under Catholicism.
England: Henry VII & Henry VIII
After decades of civil war in England, known as the Wars of the Roses, Henry VII of the Tudor dynasty defeated the House of York in 1485, securing the throne.
- Eliminated rival nobles who had supported the House of York to strengthen monarchical control.
- Established the Star Chamber, a royal court in Westminster Palace used to punish disloyal nobles.
- Strengthened diplomatic ties by arranging the marriage of his son, Henry VIII, to Catherine of Aragon from Spain.
Henry VIII further expanded royal authority by severing England from the Catholic Church under the Act of Supremacy (1534), which made him the head of the Church of England, marking the beginning of the Anglican Reformation.
The Rise of the Modern Secular State
New Monarchs laid the foundation for the modern secular state by reducing the Church's influence in governance and increasing state control over religious institutions.
- Treaties such as the Peace of Augsburg (1555) and the Edict of Nantes (1598) acknowledged state sovereignty over religion, shifting power from the Pope to monarchs.
- The Concordat of Bologna (1516) gave the French monarchy control over church appointments, demonstrating how New Monarchs used religion to strengthen state power rather than submitting to papal authority.
- The decline of feudalism and the rise of centralized bureaucracies paved the way for absolute monarchies and, eventually, modern nation-states.
By consolidating power, New Monarchs transformed Europe’s political landscape, creating stronger centralized governments that no longer relied on feudal lords or religious institutions for legitimacy.
Important Terms:
- Spanish Inquisition – A tribunal established by Ferdinand and Isabella to enforce Catholic orthodoxy, leading to the persecution and expulsion of Jews and Muslims.
- Concordat of Bologna (1516) – An agreement between King Francis I of France and Pope Leo X allowing the French king to appoint bishops, strengthening royal control over the Church.
- Peace of Augsburg (1555) – A treaty that ended religious conflict in the Holy Roman Empire by allowing each ruler to determine their state’s religion (Catholicism or Lutheranism).
- Edict of Nantes (1598) – A decree by King Henry IV of France granting religious toleration to Huguenots, ending the French Wars of Religion.
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Key Terms to Review (30)
Charles VII: Charles VII was the King of France from 1422 to 1461, known for his significant role in the Hundred Years' War and the establishment of a stronger French monarchy. His reign marked the turning point in France’s struggle against English dominance, with pivotal events such as his coronation at Reims and the involvement of Joan of Arc. Charles VII is often associated with the rise of new monarchies that sought to centralize power and strengthen royal authority.
Charles V: Charles V was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1519 to 1556 and King of Spain from 1516, representing one of the most significant political figures in European history during the 16th century. He ruled over an extensive empire that included vast territories in Europe and the Americas, which made him a central figure during critical conflicts such as the Protestant Reformation and the Wars of Religion.
Church of England: The Church of England is the national church of England, formed in the 16th century as part of the English Reformation. It broke away from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope, establishing itself as a separate entity under the monarch's control. This shift was significant in shaping religious, political, and social structures during a time of profound change in Europe.
Concordat of Bologna: The Concordat of Bologna was an agreement reached in 1516 between King Francis I of France and Pope Leo X that defined the relationship between the French crown and the Catholic Church. This concordat allowed the French king to have significant control over church appointments and the administration of church properties in France, thereby strengthening the power of the monarchy while also providing the Church with financial benefits.
Conquest of Granada: The Conquest of Granada was the final military campaign of the Reconquista, resulting in the capture of the last Muslim kingdom in Spain, Granada, by the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, in 1492. This event marked a significant turning point in Spanish history, establishing the foundations for a unified Spanish state and paving the way for further exploration and expansion under the New Monarchies.
Development of New Political Institutions: The development of new political institutions refers to the creation and evolution of governmental structures that emerged in response to the changing social, economic, and political landscape from the 15th to the 17th century. During this period, new monarchies began consolidating power, moving away from feudalism and establishing centralized forms of governance that enhanced state authority. These developments laid the groundwork for modern nation-states and influenced how power was exercised and shared between rulers and their subjects.
Edict of Nantes: The Edict of Nantes was a decree issued in 1598 by King Henry IV of France, granting religious tolerance to Huguenots (French Protestants) and ending the religious wars between Catholics and Protestants in France. This edict was significant in establishing a framework for coexistence between the two groups, reflecting the broader context of political and religious conflicts in Europe during this period.
Elizabeth I: Elizabeth I was the Queen of England from 1558 until her death in 1603, known for her strong leadership and the Elizabethan Era, a period marked by English cultural flourishing and expansion. Her reign is often associated with the consolidation of Protestantism, significant political stability, and military victories, notably against Spain.
English Reformation: The English Reformation was a religious movement in the 16th century that resulted in the Church of England breaking away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. This pivotal change not only reshaped religious practices in England but also influenced political power dynamics, social structures, and sparked further Protestant reforms across Europe.
Ferdinand of Aragon: Ferdinand of Aragon was a pivotal monarch in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, known for his role in the unification of Spain and the establishment of a powerful centralized monarchy. He ruled alongside his wife, Isabella I of Castile, and their marriage laid the foundation for the modern Spanish state, which significantly influenced European politics during the New Monarchies period.
Great Schism: The Great Schism refers to the split that occurred within the Christian Church in 1054, leading to the separation of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. This division was rooted in theological, political, and cultural differences, which were exacerbated by disputes over papal authority and the filioque controversy. The schism set the stage for significant religious and political changes in Europe during the Renaissance and influenced the development of new monarchies.
Henry VIII: Henry VIII was the King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547, best known for his six marriages and the English Reformation, which established the Church of England. His reign marked a significant shift in religious and political power, influencing various aspects of European history during the Renaissance and the Reformation.
Holy Roman Empire: The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that existed from the early Middle Ages until 1806, characterized by a decentralized political structure and the symbolic authority of the emperor. This empire played a critical role in European politics, influencing the rise of new monarchies, the wars of religion, state building efforts, and the balance of power in Europe.
Hugo Grotius: Hugo Grotius was a Dutch jurist, philosopher, and theologian, often referred to as the 'father of international law.' He played a pivotal role in shaping the legal foundations of new monarchies by advocating for natural law and the idea that nations could establish laws governing their relations with one another. His work laid the groundwork for the evolution of diplomatic practices and state sovereignty during the rise of centralized power in Europe from 1450 to 1648.
Huguenots: Huguenots were French Protestants, primarily Calvinists, who faced severe persecution in predominantly Catholic France during the 16th and 17th centuries. Their struggles for religious freedom and civil rights contributed to significant conflicts in France and helped shape the landscape of religious and political tensions during the Reformation and Wars of Religion.
Hundred Years War: The Hundred Years War was a series of conflicts fought between England and France from 1337 to 1453, primarily over territorial disputes and claims to the French throne. This prolonged struggle significantly influenced the development of national identities in both countries and shaped the political landscape of late medieval Europe, coinciding with the rise of new monarchies that emerged during this period.
Isabella of Castille: Isabella of Castille was the Queen of Castile and León from 1474 until her death in 1504. She is best known for her role in the unification of Spain and for sponsoring Christopher Columbus's 1492 expedition, which led to the discovery of the Americas. Her reign marked a significant shift toward centralized power in Spain, aligning with the trends of new monarchies that emerged in Europe during the late 15th and early 16th centuries.
Jean Bodin: Jean Bodin was a French political philosopher from the 16th century, best known for his theory of sovereignty, which emphasized the absolute power of the state and its ruler. His ideas significantly influenced the development of modern political thought and laid the groundwork for the concept of absolute monarchy, connecting to both the emergence of new monarchies and the establishment of absolutist regimes in Europe.
King Henry IV: King Henry IV was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon, reigning from 1589 until his assassination in 1610. His reign marked a significant turning point in France, as he worked to unify a nation divided by religious conflicts and established the foundations for a stronger centralized monarchy.
Kingdom of Navarre: The Kingdom of Navarre was a historical kingdom located in the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula, which existed from the early Middle Ages until its annexation by Spain in the early 16th century. It played a significant role in the politics of the region and was known for its unique blend of Basque and Spanish cultures, particularly during the rise of new monarchies in Europe from 1450 to 1648.
Machiavelli: Niccolò Machiavelli was an Italian diplomat, philosopher, and writer best known for his political treatise, 'The Prince.' His work is significant for introducing a pragmatic and sometimes ruthless approach to political leadership, emphasizing the importance of power and realpolitik over moral considerations. Machiavelli's ideas were influenced by the social and political changes during the Renaissance, particularly in the context of emerging nation-states and the decline of feudalism.
Merchants and Financiers in Renaissance Italy and Northern Europe: Merchants and financiers during the Renaissance were key players in the economic transformation of Europe, focusing on trade, banking, and finance. Their activities facilitated the growth of cities and economies, supporting the rise of new monarchies as they provided the financial resources necessary for state-building and expansion. The wealth generated by merchants and financiers allowed monarchs to consolidate power, invest in military endeavors, and foster cultural advancements, making them crucial to the political landscape from 1450 to 1648.
New Monarchies: New Monarchies refers to the centralized states that emerged in Europe during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, where rulers began consolidating power and authority, moving away from feudal structures. These monarchs utilized strategies such as the establishment of a professional army, taxation, and bureaucratic systems to strengthen their reigns and reduce the influence of the nobility and other competing powers.
Peace of Augsburg: The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty signed in 1555 that ended the religious civil war between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire. This agreement allowed each prince to determine whether their territory would be Catholic or Lutheran, thereby establishing a precedent for religious self-determination in the region and reflecting the broader religious conflicts of the time.
Pope Leo X: Pope Leo X was the 216th pope of the Roman Catholic Church, serving from 1513 to 1521. He is best known for his lavish lifestyle, patronage of the arts, and significant role in the events leading up to the Protestant Reformation, particularly his opposition to Martin Luther's reform efforts. His papacy is marked by the tension between traditional Catholic authority and the rising challenge posed by Protestant reformers.
Protestant Ideals: Protestant Ideals refer to the core beliefs and values that emerged from the Protestant Reformation, which emphasized personal faith, the authority of Scripture, and the priesthood of all believers. These ideals challenged the traditional Catholic Church's practices and hierarchical structure, promoting a more individualized approach to spirituality and governance that resonated with the rise of new monarchies during the late 15th to early 17th centuries.
Secularism: Secularism is the principle of separating religion from political, social, and educational institutions, promoting a worldview that prioritizes reason and empirical evidence over religious beliefs. This shift allowed for new ways of thinking about human existence, governance, and science, reflecting a growing trend towards individualism and critical inquiry during significant historical periods.
Spanish Inquisition: The Spanish Inquisition was a religious tribunal established in 1478 by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile aimed at maintaining Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms. This institution became notorious for its severe methods, targeting converts from Judaism and Islam, as well as other groups considered heretical, playing a significant role in shaping the religious and political landscape of Spain during the late 15th and early 16th centuries.
Spanish Empire in Mexico and Peru: The Spanish Empire in Mexico and Peru refers to the vast territories controlled by Spain in the Americas, particularly after the conquests of the Aztec and Inca empires during the 16th century. This empire became a key component of Spain's global power, facilitating immense wealth through resource extraction and establishing a colonial administrative structure that reshaped indigenous societies.
Standing Armies: Standing armies are professional, permanent military forces maintained by a state, distinct from temporary or militia forces. These armies became prominent during the period of new monarchies from 1450 to 1648, as rulers sought to consolidate power and establish stronger central authority. Standing armies allowed monarchs to exert control over their territories, defend against external threats, and project military strength without relying solely on feudal levies or mercenary forces.