French Existentialism emerged in post-World War II France, challenging traditional philosophy by emphasizing individual existence and responsibility in a seemingly meaningless universe. It reflected the cultural climate of the time, grappling with the horrors of war and rapid societal changes.

Key thinkers like Sartre, Camus, and de Beauvoir explored existential themes through novels, plays, and essays. They examined concepts such as absurdity, freedom, alienation, and authenticity, influencing generations of writers and thinkers worldwide.

Origins of French existentialism

• Emerged as a philosophical and literary movement in mid-20th century France, reflecting the cultural and intellectual climate of post-World War II Europe
• Challenged traditional Western philosophy by emphasizing individual existence, freedom, and responsibility in an apparently meaningless universe
• Developed as a response to the horrors of war, rapid societal changes, and the perceived inadequacy of existing philosophical frameworks

Influence of world wars

• World War I shattered illusions of progress and rationality, leading to disillusionment and questioning of established values
• World War II's devastation and the Holocaust intensified existential concerns about human nature and the meaning of life
• Occupation of France during WWII sparked resistance movements, influencing existentialist ideas about freedom and moral responsibility
• Post-war reconstruction period provided fertile ground for existentialist thought as people grappled with rebuilding their lives and society

Philosophical foundations

• Draws from 19th-century philosophers (Kierkegaard, Nietzsche) who emphasized subjective experience and individual existence
• Incorporates phenomenology, focusing on direct, immediate experience as the source of knowledge
• Rejects traditional metaphysics and embraces atheism or agnosticism, emphasizing human responsibility in the absence of divine guidance
• Emphasizes the concept of "existence precedes essence," arguing that humans define themselves through their actions and choices

Key existentialist thinkers

• Jean-Paul Sartre, considered the father of French existentialism, developed comprehensive philosophical system
• Albert Camus, though he rejected the label, explored existential themes in his novels and essays
• Simone de Beauvoir, pioneered existentialist feminism and applied existential concepts to gender relations
• Maurice Merleau-Ponty, contributed to existential phenomenology, focusing on embodied experience and perception

Themes in existentialist literature

• Explores the human condition in a world devoid of inherent meaning or purpose
• Emphasizes individual responsibility for creating meaning and values in one's life
• Examines the tension between personal freedom and societal constraints

Absurdity of existence

• Portrays life as inherently meaningless, lacking predetermined purpose or universal truths
• Explores the conflict between human desire for meaning and the indifferent universe
• Uses absurd situations or characters to highlight the irrationality of existence
• Encourages embracing the absurd as a means of authentic living (Camus' "revolt")

Freedom and responsibility

• Asserts that humans are "condemned to be free" and must make choices that define their existence
• Emphasizes the burden of responsibility that comes with absolute freedom
• Explores the anxiety and anguish (angoisse) resulting from the weight of personal choices
• Examines how individuals navigate moral dilemmas in the absence of absolute ethical standards

Alienation and isolation

• Depicts characters feeling disconnected from society, others, and even themselves
• Explores the existential loneliness that arises from recognizing one's unique consciousness
• Examines the struggle to find authentic connections in a world of superficial relationships
• Portrays the individual's search for meaning as a solitary journey

Authenticity vs bad faith

• Contrasts authentic living (embracing freedom and responsibility) with bad faith (self-deception and denial of freedom)
• Explores how societal roles and expectations can lead to inauthentic existence
• Examines the tension between individual desires and social conformity
• Portrays characters struggling to overcome bad faith and live authentically

Major French existentialist authors

• Shaped the literary and philosophical landscape of post-war France
• Explored existential themes through various genres including novels, plays, and essays
• Influenced generations of writers and thinkers worldwide

Jean-Paul Sartre

• Philosopher, novelist, playwright, and political activist who popularized existentialism
• Developed concept of "existence precedes essence" in his philosophical works
• Wrote influential novels (Nausea) and plays (No Exit) exploring existential themes
• Awarded but declined the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1964
• Engaged in political activism, supporting leftist causes and anti-colonial movements

Simone de Beauvoir

• Philosopher, novelist, and feminist theorist who applied existentialist ideas to gender issues
• Wrote groundbreaking feminist text The Second Sex, analyzing women's oppression through existential lens
• Explored existential themes in novels (She Came to Stay) and memoirs (Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter)
• Long-term partner of Sartre, their relationship embodied existentialist ideas of freedom and authenticity
• Contributed to existentialist ethics, developing concepts of ambiguity and situated freedom

Albert Camus

• Nobel Prize-winning author who explored existential themes while rejecting the existentialist label
• Developed philosophy of the absurd, emphasizing revolt, freedom, and passion as responses to life's meaninglessness
• Wrote influential novels (The Stranger, The Plague) and essays (The Myth of Sisyphus) examining absurdity and human condition
• Engaged with political issues, supporting justice and opposing totalitarianism
• Explored themes of alienation, guilt, and moral responsibility in his works

Existentialist novels

• Employ narrative techniques to explore existential themes and philosophical concepts
• Often feature alienated protagonists grappling with meaninglessness and personal responsibility
• Use symbolism and absurdist elements to convey existential ideas

Nausea by Sartre

• Published in 1938, considered one of the first existentialist novels
• Follows Antoine Roquentin, a historian experiencing profound alienation and disgust with existence
• Uses stream-of-consciousness narration to convey the protagonist's existential crisis
• Explores themes of contingency, freedom, and the absurdity of existence
• Employs vivid descriptions of physical sensations to illustrate existential nausea

The Stranger by Camus

• Published in 1942, exemplifies Camus' philosophy of the absurd
• Narrated by Meursault, an emotionally detached man who commits a senseless murder
• Explores themes of alienation, indifference, and the absurdity of social conventions
• Uses sparse, detached prose style to reflect the protagonist's emotional state
• Examines the conflict between individual authenticity and societal expectations

The Plague by Camus

• Published in 1947, allegorical novel set during a plague epidemic in Oran, Algeria
• Explores collective human responses to crisis and the absurdity of existence
• Examines themes of solidarity, resistance, and moral responsibility in the face of suffering
• Uses multiple characters to present different philosophical perspectives on the plague
• Reflects on the nature of evil and the possibility of finding meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe

Existentialist plays

• Use theatrical form to dramatize existential concepts and dilemmas
• Often employ symbolic settings and surreal elements to explore philosophical ideas
• Challenge traditional theatrical conventions to reflect existentialist worldview

No Exit by Sartre

• First performed in 1944, set in a mysterious room representing the afterlife
• Features three characters trapped together, realizing "hell is other people"
• Explores themes of self-deception, bad faith, and the gaze of others
• Uses confined setting to examine interpersonal relationships and self-definition
• Employs circular structure to reflect the characters' eternal predicament

The Flies by Sartre

• Premiered in 1943, retells the Greek myth of Orestes and Electra
• Set in a city plagued by flies, symbolizing guilt and remorse
• Explores themes of freedom, responsibility, and the rejection of divine authority
• Uses mythological framework to comment on contemporary issues (Nazi occupation)
• Portrays Orestes as an existential hero who chooses to act and bear responsibility

Caligula by Camus

• Written in 1938 but first performed in 1945, based on the historical Roman emperor
• Depicts Caligula's descent into madness after realizing the absurdity of existence
• Explores themes of absolute freedom, the limits of power, and the consequences of nihilism
• Uses historical setting to examine universal existential questions
• Portrays Caligula as both a tyrant and a tragic figure grappling with life's meaninglessness

Existentialist essays

• Present philosophical arguments and explore existential concepts in non-fiction form
• Often combine personal reflections with broader philosophical analysis
• Influential in shaping existentialist thought and popularizing key ideas

Being and Nothingness by Sartre

• Published in 1943, Sartre's magnum opus on existential philosophy
• Develops concepts of consciousness, freedom, and the nature of human existence
• Explores key ideas such as "existence precedes essence" and "bad faith"
• Analyzes human relationships through the lens of "the look" and objectification
• Influences fields beyond philosophy, including psychology and social theory

The Myth of Sisyphus by Camus

• Published in 1942, philosophical essay exploring the concept of the absurd
• Uses the Greek myth of Sisyphus to illustrate the human condition
• Argues for embracing the absurd through revolt, freedom, and passion
• Examines the question of suicide as a response to life's meaninglessness
• Introduces the concept of the "absurd hero" who finds meaning in struggle

The Second Sex by Beauvoir

• Published in 1949, groundbreaking feminist text applying existentialist ideas to gender
• Analyzes women's oppression through the lens of existential philosophy
• Explores how women are defined as "Other" in relation to men
• Examines biological, psychological, and social factors shaping women's experiences
• Argues for women's liberation as an existential project of self-realization

Literary techniques

• Employ innovative narrative strategies to convey existential themes and experiences
• Challenge traditional literary conventions to reflect existentialist worldview
• Use language and structure to immerse readers in characters' existential crises

First-person narration

• Emphasizes subjective experience and individual consciousness
• Allows direct access to characters' thoughts and existential struggles
• Creates sense of immediacy and intimacy with protagonists' inner worlds
• Often employs stream-of-consciousness technique to reflect chaotic nature of existence

Unreliable narrators

• Challenges readers' assumptions about truth and reality
• Reflects existentialist ideas about subjectivity and the impossibility of absolute knowledge
• Creates ambiguity and uncertainty, mirroring existential doubt
• Forces readers to actively engage with text and question narrator's perspective

Symbolic imagery

• Uses concrete objects or situations to represent abstract existential concepts
• Employs recurring motifs to reinforce themes of alienation, absurdity, or freedom
• Creates multi-layered meanings that deepen philosophical exploration
• Often draws from mythology or cultural archetypes to universalize existential ideas

Absurdist elements

• Incorporates illogical or nonsensical situations to highlight life's absurdity
• Uses dark humor or irony to underscore existential themes
• Subverts readers' expectations to create sense of disorientation
• Blends realistic and surreal elements to question nature of reality

Impact on world literature

• Influenced literary movements and individual authors globally
• Shaped post-war intellectual climate and artistic expression
• Continues to resonate in contemporary literature and popular culture

Influence on post-war writers

• Inspired Beat Generation authors (Kerouac, Ginsberg) in America
• Influenced European writers like Samuel Beckett and Eugene Ionesco
• Shaped development of postmodern literature and its questioning of grand narratives
• Impacted Latin American authors (Julio Cortázar, Jorge Luis Borges) exploring existential themes

Existentialism in other cultures

• Japanese authors (Kobo Abe, Kenzaburo Oe) adapted existentialist ideas to explore post-war Japanese society
• African writers (Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka) incorporated existential themes in postcolonial contexts
• Middle Eastern authors (Naguib Mahfouz, Ghassan Kanafani) explored existential questions in their cultural settings
• Eastern European writers (Milan Kundera, Václav Havel) engaged with existentialist ideas under communist regimes

Legacy in contemporary literature

• Continues to influence authors exploring themes of alienation and meaninglessness in modern society
• Shapes literary approaches to issues of identity, freedom, and responsibility in globalized world
• Informs dystopian and speculative fiction examining human existence in extreme situations
• Contributes to development of autofiction and other forms blending personal experience with philosophical reflection

Criticism of existentialism

• Faced various objections from philosophical, literary, and social perspectives
• Sparked debates about its coherence, ethical implications, and cultural biases
• Continues to be critically examined and reinterpreted in light of contemporary issues

Philosophical objections

• Criticized for potential relativism and lack of objective moral standards
• Challenged by analytical philosophers for perceived lack of rigorous argumentation
• Questioned by religious thinkers for its atheistic or agnostic stance
• Critiqued for overemphasizing individual freedom at expense of social determinants

Literary critiques

• Accused of privileging philosophy over artistic merit in literature
• Criticized for potentially creating one-dimensional characters serving philosophical arguments
• Questioned for its potential to lead to nihilistic or overly pessimistic worldviews
• Challenged for its focus on alienation and angst at expense of other human experiences

Feminist perspectives

• Critiqued by some feminists for male-centric focus in early existentialist works
• Questioned assumptions about universal human experience that may not account for gendered realities
• Explored tensions between existentialist emphasis on individual freedom and feminist analyses of systemic oppression
• Developed existentialist feminism (Beauvoir) to address gender issues within existentialist framework