Existentialism emerged as a philosophical and literary movement in the mid-20th century, focusing on individual existence and freedom. It developed in response to World War II's horrors and the perceived meaninglessness of human life, influenced by thinkers like Kierkegaard and Nietzsche.

Key existentialist concepts include the absurdity of existence, freedom and responsibility, and authenticity versus bad faith. These ideas shaped the works of authors like Sartre, Camus, and Kafka, who explored themes of alienation, the search for meaning, and mortality in their writings.

Origins of existentialism

• Emerged as a philosophical and literary movement in the mid-20th century, emphasizing individual existence and freedom
• Developed in response to the horrors of World War II and the perceived meaninglessness of human existence
• Influenced by earlier philosophers like Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche, who explored themes of individual responsibility and the nature of existence

Philosophical foundations

• Rooted in phenomenology, focuses on subjective human experience and consciousness
• Rejects traditional metaphysical and religious explanations of existence
• Emphasizes individual freedom and responsibility in creating meaning in life
• Influenced by Husserl's concept of intentionality and Heidegger's notion of Being-in-the-world

Post-war cultural context

• Emerged in the aftermath of World War II, reflecting disillusionment with traditional values and institutions
• Responded to the existential crisis brought on by the atrocities of war and the threat of nuclear annihilation
• Challenged the optimism of Enlightenment thinking and the idea of inherent human progress
• Gained popularity in France during the 1940s and 1950s, spreading to other parts of Europe and beyond

Key existentialist concepts

Absurdity of existence

• Posits that human life lacks inherent meaning or purpose
• Highlights the conflict between human desire for meaning and the indifferent universe
• Explores the tension between individual consciousness and the apparent randomness of existence
• Encourages individuals to create their own meaning in the face of life's absurdity

Freedom and responsibility

• Asserts that humans are fundamentally free to make choices and shape their own lives
• Emphasizes the burden of responsibility that comes with this radical freedom
• Explores the concept of "existence precedes essence," suggesting that individuals create their own identities through their actions
• Examines the anxiety and anguish that often accompany the realization of absolute freedom

Authenticity vs bad faith

• Authenticity involves living in accordance with one's true self and values
• Bad faith refers to self-deception or denial of one's freedom and responsibility
• Explores the tension between societal expectations and individual authenticity
• Examines how individuals often flee from their freedom by conforming to social roles or predetermined identities

Existentialist authors

French existentialists

• Jean-Paul Sartre, considered the father of existentialism, wrote novels (Nausea) and plays (No Exit)
• Albert Camus, often associated with existentialism despite rejecting the label, wrote novels (The Stranger) and essays (The Myth of Sisyphus)
• Simone de Beauvoir, explored existentialist themes in relation to feminism and gender in works like The Second Sex

Other European writers

• Franz Kafka, Czech author whose works (The Metamorphosis, The Trial) explore themes of alienation and absurdity
• Samuel Beckett, Irish playwright whose absurdist plays (Waiting for Godot) embody existentialist themes
• Fyodor Dostoevsky, Russian novelist whose works (Notes from Underground, Crime and Punishment) anticipated existentialist ideas

Non-Western perspectives

• Lu Xun, Chinese writer who explored existentialist themes in the context of Chinese society and culture
• Naguib Mahfouz, Egyptian novelist who incorporated existentialist ideas into his portrayals of modern Arab life
• Kenzaburō Ōe, Japanese author whose works examine existential themes in post-war Japan

Recurring themes

Alienation and isolation

• Explores the feeling of disconnection from society, others, and even oneself
• Examines the struggle to find meaning and connection in an indifferent world
• Portrays characters who feel out of place or unable to relate to those around them
• Reflects on the existential loneliness inherent in the human condition

Search for meaning

• Investigates the human need to find purpose and significance in life
• Explores various ways characters attempt to create meaning (through relationships, work, art, or rebellion)
• Examines the tension between the desire for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of existence
• Considers the role of personal values and choices in constructing individual meaning

Death and mortality

• Confronts the reality of human finitude and its impact on how we live our lives
• Explores how awareness of mortality influences decision-making and personal values
• Examines the concept of "being-towards-death" and its implications for authentic living
• Considers various attitudes towards death, from fear and denial to acceptance and embrace

Literary techniques

Stream of consciousness

• Mimics the flow of thoughts and sensations in a character's mind
• Blurs the boundaries between internal monologue and external reality
• Reflects the non-linear and often chaotic nature of human consciousness
• Used to explore the subjective experience of existence and the complexity of human perception

Unreliable narrators

• Presents a narrative from the perspective of a character whose credibility is questionable
• Challenges readers to question the nature of truth and reality
• Reflects the existentialist idea that there is no objective truth, only subjective experiences
• Explores themes of self-deception and the limitations of individual perception

Fragmented narratives

• Breaks traditional linear storytelling to reflect the disjointed nature of existence
• Uses non-chronological or episodic structures to challenge conventional notions of time and causality
• Mirrors the existentialist view of life as inherently chaotic and lacking in inherent order
• Encourages readers to actively engage in constructing meaning from disparate narrative elements

Notable existentialist works

Novels and novellas

• Nausea by Jean-Paul Sartre, explores the protagonist's growing awareness of the absurdity of existence
• The Stranger by Albert Camus, examines the alienation and indifference of its main character
• The Trial by Franz Kafka, portrays a man's struggle against an incomprehensible and oppressive bureaucracy
• Notes from Underground by Fyodor Dostoevsky, presents a deeply alienated narrator grappling with existential questions

Plays and theater

• No Exit by Jean-Paul Sartre, explores the nature of human relationships and the idea that "hell is other people"
• Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett, portrays characters trapped in a meaningless existence, waiting for something that never arrives
• Rhinoceros by Eugène Ionesco, uses absurdist elements to examine conformity and the loss of individual identity
• Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard, reimagines minor characters from Hamlet to explore existential themes

Essays and non-fiction

• The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus, examines the absurd nature of human existence and the possibility of finding meaning
• Being and Nothingness by Jean-Paul Sartre, presents a comprehensive philosophical exploration of existentialist ideas
• The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir, applies existentialist concepts to an analysis of women's oppression and liberation
• The Rebel by Albert Camus, explores the nature of rebellion and its relationship to human freedom and authenticity

Influence on world literature

Modernist movements

• Contributed to the fragmentation and experimentation characteristic of modernist literature
• Influenced the development of the Theatre of the Absurd, which incorporated existentialist themes
• Shaped the psychological realism of authors like Virginia Woolf and James Joyce
• Impacted the development of Beat literature in the United States, with its emphasis on individual experience and nonconformity

Postmodern literature

• Influenced postmodern authors' exploration of subjective reality and multiple perspectives
• Contributed to the deconstruction of grand narratives and absolute truths in postmodern works
• Shaped the development of metafiction and self-reflexive narratives
• Impacted the portrayal of fragmented identities and the questioning of societal norms in postmodern literature

Contemporary fiction

• Continues to influence authors exploring themes of alienation and the search for meaning in a globalized world
• Shapes the portrayal of individual struggles in the face of societal pressures and technological advancements
• Informs the development of literary genres like speculative fiction and dystopian literature
• Contributes to the ongoing exploration of identity, authenticity, and human existence in contemporary novels and short stories

Criticism and interpretations

Philosophical debates

• Examines the coherence and validity of existentialist ideas within the broader context of philosophy
• Explores critiques of existentialism from other philosophical traditions (Marxism, analytical philosophy)
• Considers the relationship between existentialism and other philosophical movements (phenomenology, pragmatism)
• Investigates the ethical implications of existentialist thought and its potential for moral relativism

Literary analysis

• Examines the effectiveness of existentialist themes and techniques in conveying philosophical ideas
• Explores the relationship between form and content in existentialist literature
• Considers the role of symbolism and metaphor in expressing existentialist concepts
• Investigates the impact of existentialist ideas on character development and narrative structure

Cultural impact

• Examines the influence of existentialism on various art forms (film, visual arts, music)
• Explores the role of existentialist ideas in shaping social and political movements
• Considers the relevance of existentialist thought in addressing contemporary global issues
• Investigates the reception and interpretation of existentialist works across different cultures and time periods

Existentialism vs other philosophies

Existentialism vs nihilism

• Existentialism acknowledges life's inherent meaninglessness but emphasizes creating personal meaning
• Nihilism posits that life is fundamentally meaningless and rejects the possibility of creating value
• Existentialism focuses on individual responsibility and action, while nihilism often leads to passivity
• Both philosophies reject traditional sources of meaning but differ in their response to this rejection

Existentialism vs absurdism

• Existentialism emphasizes the individual's ability to create meaning in an absurd world
• Absurdism, as developed by Camus, focuses on embracing the absurd without trying to resolve it
• Both philosophies acknowledge the fundamental absurdity of human existence
• Existentialism and absurdism differ in their approach to finding purpose in life

Legacy and relevance

Contemporary applications

• Informs modern psychotherapy approaches, particularly existential therapy and logotherapy
• Influences educational philosophies that emphasize individual growth and self-directed learning
• Shapes discussions on ethics and decision-making in fields like business and healthcare
• Contributes to ongoing debates about personal freedom and responsibility in the digital age

Existentialism in popular culture

• Influences themes and narratives in contemporary films (The Matrix, Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind)
• Shapes character development and storytelling in video games (BioShock, The Stanley Parable)
• Informs lyrics and themes in various music genres, particularly in rock and alternative music
• Contributes to the exploration of existential themes in graphic novels and comic books (Watchmen, The Sandman)