The Black Death ravaged Europe, killing up to 60% of the population. This catastrophe upended social structures, empowering peasants and weakening feudalism. Labor shortages led to higher wages and social unrest, while centralized monarchies grew stronger.

As Europe transformed, Islam spread across Asia and Africa. The Mongol Empire's fall gave rise to new Islamic dynasties like the Ottomans and Mughals. These empires blended Islamic traditions with local cultures, creating diverse art, architecture, and spiritual practices.

Social and Political Transformations in the Late Middle Ages

Black Death's impact on European social structures

• Widespread population loss due to the Black Death
  • Estimated 30-60% of Europe's population perished (1347-1351)
  • Labor shortages ensued in the aftermath of the pandemic, particularly in agriculture and crafts
• Challenges to traditional social hierarchies
  • Peasants and laborers gained increased bargaining power due to labor scarcity
  • Demands for higher wages and better working conditions became more common
  • Erosion of the manor system and serfdom as lords struggled to retain workers
• Social unrest and upheaval
  • Peasant revolts erupted, such as the Jacquerie in France (1358) and the Peasants' Revolt in England (1381)
  • Increased crime and lawlessness in some regions as social order broke down
• Shifts in religious attitudes
  • Heightened religiosity and mysticism as people sought solace and meaning
  • Flagellant movements and penitential processions emerged as responses to the plague
  • Persecution of minority groups, such as Jews, who were often scapegoated and blamed for the plague

Growth of centralized monarchies and decline of feudalism

• Weakening of the feudal system
  • Decline of the manor system and the power of the nobility as labor shortages and social upheaval took their toll
  • Increasing importance of money and wage labor in the economy, undermining traditional feudal relationships
• Consolidation of power by monarchs
  • Monarchs took advantage of the weakened nobility to assert greater control over their kingdoms
  • Development of professional standing armies loyal to the crown, reducing reliance on feudal levies
  • Establishment of new taxes and revenue streams to support centralized administration and bureaucracy
• Rise of the nation-state
  • Emergence of strong, centralized monarchies in England, France, and Spain during the 15th and 16th centuries
  • Decline of the Holy Roman Empire and the power of the papacy in temporal affairs
  • Increasing use of vernacular languages in administration and literature, fostering a sense of national identity

Islamic Traditions in the Post-Mongol Era

Spread and diversification of Islamic traditions

• Fragmentation of the Mongol Empire
  • Division of the empire among Genghis Khan's descendants following his death in 1227
  • Decline of the Ilkhanate in Persia and the Golden Horde in Russia by the mid-14th century
• Spread of Islam under the Timurids
  • Timur's conquests in Central Asia, Persia, and India (1370-1405) facilitated the spread of Islam
  • Patronage of Islamic art, architecture, and scholarship under Timurid rule (e.g., Samarkand, Herat)
• Emergence of new Islamic dynasties
  • Rise of the Ottoman Empire in Anatolia and the Balkans (1299-1922)
  • Establishment of the Safavid dynasty in Persia (1501-1736)
  • Mughal Empire in India (1526-1857), founded by Babur, a descendant of Timur
• Diversification of Islamic traditions
  • Development of Sufi orders and mystical practices, such as the Mevlevi (Whirling Dervishes) and Naqshbandi orders
  • Synthesis of Islamic and local cultural traditions in newly converted regions (e.g., Indonesia, West Africa)
  • Emergence of distinct architectural styles, such as the Ottoman (Blue Mosque) and Mughal (Taj Mahal) styles