The 14th century saw major upheavals across Eurasia. Climate change ushered in the Little Ice Age, causing crop failures and famines. This weakened populations, making them vulnerable to the devastating Black Death pandemic that killed up to 60% of people in some areas.

These crises led to political instability and challenges to authority. The Mongol Empire fragmented as the Yuan Dynasty fell in China and other khanates disintegrated. In Europe, the Catholic Church faced the Great Schism while the Hundred Years' War erupted between England and France.

Impact of Climate Change and Plague in the 14th Century

Little Ice Age, Famines, Black Death

• Climate change in the 14th century
  • Onset of the Little Ice Age brought cooler temperatures and increased rainfall across Europe and Asia
  • Shortened growing seasons led to widespread crop failures (wheat, barley, oats)
  • Cooler temperatures also affected livestock populations (sheep, cattle)
• Famines across Eurasia and North Africa
  • The Great Famine (1315-1317) in Europe caused by heavy rains and cold temperatures
  • Famine in China during the Yuan Dynasty due to droughts and locust infestations
  • Famines led to malnutrition, weakened immune systems, and increased susceptibility to disease
• The Black Death (bubonic plague) pandemic
  • Originated in Central Asia and spread via trade routes (Silk Road, maritime trade)
  • Devastated populations in Asia, North Africa, and Europe with an estimated 30-60% mortality rate
  • Spread by infected fleas on rats, as well as human-to-human transmission (pneumonic plague)
• Political instability resulting from climate change, famine, and plague
  • Weakened central authorities and reduced tax revenues due to population loss
  • Peasant revolts and social unrest, such as the Jacquerie in France (1358)
  • Decline of the Mongol Empire and the Yuan Dynasty in China, hastened by the plague
  • Challenges to the authority of the Catholic Church in Europe, as faith in religious institutions wavered

Decline of Mongol Authority in the 14th Century

Yuan Dynasty, Il-Khanate, Golden Horde

• Factors contributing to the decline of the Mongol Empire
  • Overextension and difficulty maintaining control over vast territories stretching from China to Eastern Europe
  • Internal power struggles and succession disputes among Mongol princes and khans
  • Assimilation of Mongols into local cultures and loss of traditional Mongol identity and unity
• Decline of the Yuan Dynasty in China
  • Corruption and mismanagement under later Yuan emperors, leading to economic troubles and popular discontent
  • Growing resentment among the Han Chinese population due to ethnic discrimination and foreign rule
  • Rebellion led by Zhu Yuanzhang, who founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368 after overthrowing the Yuan
• Disintegration of the Il-Khanate in Persia
  • Conversion of the Il-Khans to Islam, which undermined the religious and political unity of the Mongol Empire
  • Fragmentation of the Il-Khanate into rival states, such as the Jalayirids and Muzaffarids
  • Rise of Timur (Tamerlane) in the late 14th century, who established the Timurid Empire in Central Asia and Persia
• Decline of the Golden Horde in Russia
  • Struggles between rival khans and princes for control of the Golden Horde
  • Challenges from the rising power of Muscovy, which began to assert its independence
  • Fragmentation of the Golden Horde into smaller khanates, such as Kazan and Crimea, by the early 15th century

Challenges to Authority in 14th Century Europe

Great Schism, Hundred Years' War, Religious Movements

• The Great Schism (1378-1417)
  • Election of rival popes in Rome and Avignon, leading to a split in the Catholic Church
  • Divided loyalties among European rulers and clergy, who supported different popes
  • Weakened moral authority of the Catholic Church and calls for reform
• The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)
  • Dynastic conflict between England and France over claims to the French throne
  • Challenges to the authority of the French monarchy, particularly during the reign of Charles VI
  • Rise of nationalist sentiment in both countries, as the war fostered a sense of national identity
• Other challenges to religious and political authority
  • John Wycliffe and the Lollard movement in England, which criticized Church corruption and advocated for vernacular Bible translations
  • Jan Hus and the Hussite movement in Bohemia, which called for Church reform and challenged papal authority
  • Conflicts between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, such as the Investiture Controversy and the Avignon Papacy (1309-1377)
  • The Avignon Papacy, which saw the relocation of the papal court to Avignon, France, and a decline in papal prestige and authority