Medieval Europe was a complex society structured around feudalism, the Three Estates, and the Catholic Church. These systems shaped social, economic, and political life, while major events like the Black Death and Hundred Years' War caused significant upheaval.

European exploration was driven by technological advancements, economic incentives, and political motivations. This era of discovery reshaped global trade networks and led to increased cultural exchange between Europe and other parts of the world.

Medieval European Society

Structures of medieval European society

• Feudalism hierarchical system of land ownership and loyalty where lords granted land (fiefs) to vassals in exchange for military service and loyalty, while peasants worked the land and owed labor and a portion of their crops to the lord
• The Three Estates divided society into three groups:
  • First Estate consisted of the clergy responsible for the spiritual well-being of society
  • Second Estate comprised the nobility who held most of the land and political power
  • Third Estate included commoners such as peasants, artisans, and merchants
• Manorialism economic system based on self-sufficient agricultural estates (manors) where peasants lived and worked, providing labor and crops to the lord in exchange for protection and justice
• The Catholic Church powerful religious and political institution that owned significant amounts of land, wielded considerable influence, provided education, healthcare, and social services, and acted as a unifying force across Europe (Papal States)
  • The Great Schism, a period of papal rivalry, weakened the Church's authority and led to calls for reform

Major events and developments

• The Black Death, a devastating pandemic in the 14th century, caused significant population decline and social upheaval, leading to labor shortages and changes in the feudal system
• The Hundred Years' War between England and France (1337-1453) reshaped political boundaries and contributed to the rise of national identities
• The Hanseatic League, a powerful merchant confederation, dominated trade in Northern Europe and the Baltic region, facilitating economic growth and cultural exchange

European Exploration and Trade

Factors for European exploration

• Technological advancements in navigation and shipbuilding enabled longer voyages:
  1. The compass improved navigation by providing a reliable way to determine direction
  2. The astrolabe allowed sailors to calculate latitude and navigate by the stars
  3. Caravel ships were faster, more maneuverable, and could sail closer to the wind
• Improved cartography (Ptolemy's Geography) and the rediscovery of ancient knowledge during the Renaissance sparked interest in the world beyond Europe
• Economic incentives such as the growth of a merchant class (bourgeoisie), the rise of capitalism, and the search for new sources of wealth (gold, spices, silk) drove exploration
• The desire to bypass Muslim middlemen (Ottoman Empire) in the trade with Asia and establish direct trade routes
  • The decline of the Silk Road due to political instability and the spread of the Black Death increased the need for alternative trade routes
• Political and religious motivations including the desire to spread Christianity (missionaries), counter the influence of Islam, and compete with other European nations for power and prestige

Christian Europe and the Islamic World

Christian-Islamic interactions in Middle Ages

• The Crusades series of military campaigns launched by European Christians aimed to reclaim the Holy Land (Jerusalem) from Muslim control, resulting in increased cultural exchange and trade (spices, textiles) but ultimately failing to achieve their primary objective
• The Reconquista gradual Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal) from Muslim rule lasting from the 8th to the 15th century and culminating in the fall of Granada in 1492
• Trade and cultural exchange facilitated by the Islamic world serving as a conduit for knowledge (mathematics, astronomy) and goods (silk, porcelain) from Asia to Europe
• Muslim scholars (Avicenna, Averroes) preserved and expanded upon classical Greek and Roman knowledge, which European scholars later translated and incorporated into their own intellectual traditions
• The Ottoman Empire major Muslim power that emerged in the 14th century, conquered Constantinople in 1453 ending the Byzantine Empire, and posed a significant threat to Christian Europe with conflicts (Siege of Vienna) lasting into the 17th century

Intellectual and Cultural Developments

• Renaissance Humanism, an intellectual movement emphasizing the value of human potential and classical learning, emerged in Italy and spread throughout Europe
• The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg revolutionized the spread of information, making books more accessible and contributing to the rise of literacy and the dissemination of new ideas