Before Europeans arrived, the Americas were home to diverse and advanced civilizations. From the Olmecs to the Aztecs, Maya to Inca, these societies developed complex cultures, technologies, and social structures.

Native American achievements spanned agriculture, architecture, astronomy, and more. The Mississippian mound-builders, Mesoamerican city-states, and Andean empires showcased the ingenuity and diversity of pre-Columbian peoples across North and South America.

Pre-Columbian American Civilizations

Locations of pre-Columbian civilizations

• Mesoamerica
  • Olmec civilization (1200-400 BCE) considered the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica, developed a writing system, calendar, and ceremonial centers in present-day Mexico
  • Maya civilization (2000 BCE-1500 CE) located in present-day Guatemala, Belize, and parts of Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador, known for advanced writing, mathematics, astronomy, and calendar systems
  • Aztec civilization (1300-1521 CE) centered in the Valley of Mexico, with the capital city of Tenochtitlan, established a vast empire through military conquests and a tribute system
• South America
  • Inca civilization (1400-1532 CE) the largest pre-Columbian empire, spanning from present-day Ecuador to Chile, known for advanced engineering, road networks, and the city of Machu Picchu
• North America
  • Mississippian culture (800-1600 CE) located in the Mississippi River Valley and the southeastern United States, characterized by large earthen mounds, extensive trade networks, and the site of Cahokia
  • Mound-building cultures developed complex societies and constructed large earthworks for ceremonial and burial purposes

Achievements of indigenous American societies

• Mesoamerica
  • Olmec civilization created colossal stone heads and jade carvings, developed the first Mesoamerican calendar and writing system
  • Maya civilization developed a hieroglyphic writing system, made accurate astronomical observations and a sophisticated calendar, built impressive architecture including pyramids and palaces
  • Aztec civilization used chinampas (floating gardens) for agriculture, created intricate featherwork and gold metalworking, documented history and religious beliefs in codices (folded bark paper books)
• South America
  • Inca civilization built an extensive road network (Qhapaq Ñan) spanning over 40,000 km, showcased impressive stone masonry in Machu Picchu and other sites, used quipu (a system of knotted cords) for record-keeping
• North America
  • Mississippian culture constructed large earthen mounds for ceremonial and residential purposes, maintained extensive trade networks for goods such as copper, shells, and pottery
• Agricultural innovations
  • Maize cultivation was a crucial development that supported population growth and complex societies across the Americas

Diversity among Native American groups

• Social structures
  • Mesoamerican civilizations (Olmec, Maya, Aztec) had hierarchical societies with ruling elites, priests, warriors, and commoners, and complex urban centers with distinct social classes
  • North American tribes had varied social structures, from egalitarian bands to chiefdoms and confederacies (Iroquois Confederacy, Pueblo societies, and nomadic Plains tribes)
• Religious beliefs
  • Mesoamerican civilizations practiced polytheistic religions with gods representing natural forces and human activities, emphasized the importance of ritual sacrifices and ceremonies to maintain cosmic order
  • North American tribes had diverse spiritual beliefs often centered around nature and ancestor spirits, held animistic worldviews attributing spiritual significance to animals, plants, and natural phenomena
• Daily life practices
  • Mesoamerican civilizations were agriculture-based societies with maize, beans, and squash as staple crops, and specialized in crafts such as pottery, weaving, and metalworking
  • North American tribes had varied subsistence strategies including hunting, gathering, fishing, and agriculture, and diverse housing styles adapted to local environments such as tipis, longhouses, and pueblos

Indigenous peoples and cultural exchange

• Pre-Columbian societies developed diverse cultures and technologies independently of Old World influences
• The Columbian Exchange, following European contact, led to significant changes in flora, fauna, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds
• Indigenous peoples faced profound challenges and transformations due to European colonization and the introduction of new plants, animals, and pathogens