The late 19th century saw America transform through rapid technological advancements. From Edison's lightbulb to Ford's assembly line, innovations revolutionized industry, boosting productivity and living standards. These changes laid the foundation for modern American society.

This era of progress also brought challenges. Big businesses and monopolies emerged, concentrating wealth and power. The government grappled with promoting growth while regulating excesses. Meanwhile, workers faced harsh conditions, sparking the rise of labor unions and calls for reform.

Technology's Impact on American Society

Advancements in Electricity and Manufacturing

• The second industrial revolution, from the late 19th to early 20th century, saw a rapid increase in technological innovations that transformed American industry and society
• Thomas Edison's light bulb and power systems revolutionized factories, businesses, and homes leading to increased productivity and improved living standards
• The development of the Bessemer process and open-hearth furnaces greatly increased steel production making it cheaper and more widely available for construction and manufacturing
• The rise of mass production techniques, exemplified by Henry Ford's assembly line, increased efficiency, lowered costs, and made consumer goods more affordable and accessible to a growing middle class

Innovations in Communication, Transportation, and Agriculture

• The telegraph and telephone facilitated long-distance business transactions and connected people across the country
• The expansion of the railroad network, including the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, dramatically reduced transportation costs and time enabling the growth of national markets and the rise of large corporations
• Advancements in agriculture, such as the steel plow, mechanical reaper, and combine harvester, increased farm productivity and output leading to the commercialization of agriculture and the decline of small family farms

Rise of Big Business

Emergence of Monopolies and Trusts

• The late 19th century saw the emergence of large, vertically and horizontally integrated corporations that dominated their respective industries, often through the formation of monopolies and trusts
• Robber barons, such as Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and J.P. Morgan, amassed enormous wealth and power by ruthlessly eliminating competition and controlling entire industries
• The rise of trusts, such as the Sugar Trust and the Beef Trust, allowed companies to fix prices, limit production, and eliminate competition leading to higher consumer prices and reduced market efficiency

Dominance of Key Industries

• Andrew Carnegie's Carnegie Steel Company became the largest steel manufacturer in the world through vertical integration controlling every stage of the production process from raw materials to finished products
• John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company monopolized the oil industry through horizontal integration acquiring rival companies and engaging in predatory pricing to drive out competition
• The concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large corporations and wealthy individuals led to growing concerns about income inequality, working conditions, and the erosion of democratic values

Government's Role in Industrialization

Promoting Industrial Growth

• The federal government played a significant role in promoting industrial growth through policies such as subsidies, land grants, and protective tariffs, while also attempting to regulate business practices to address public concerns
• The Morrill Land-Grant Acts of 1862 and 1890 provided federal land to states for the establishment of colleges focused on agriculture and mechanical arts supporting the development of a skilled industrial workforce
• High protective tariffs, such as the McKinley Tariff of 1890 and the Dingley Tariff of 1897, shielded American industries from foreign competition encouraging domestic production and investment

Regulating Business Practices

• The government's laissez-faire approach to regulation, influenced by the concept of Social Darwinism, initially allowed businesses to operate with minimal interference leading to the growth of monopolies and trusts
• The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroads prohibiting price discrimination and requiring published shipping rates, but its effectiveness was limited by judicial interpretations
• The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 outlawed trusts and monopolies that restrained trade, but its vague language and narrow judicial interpretations made it largely ineffective in breaking up large corporations
• Progressive Era reforms, such as the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act of 1906, aimed to protect consumers and regulate business practices marking a shift towards greater government intervention in the economy

Consequences of Industrialization

Impact on the Working Class

• The rise of factory work and urbanization led to the growth of a new industrial working class, composed largely of immigrants and rural migrants, who faced long hours, low wages, and hazardous working conditions
• Child labor was widespread, with children as young as five working in factories, mines, and mills, often in dangerous and exploitative conditions
• Labor unions, such as the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor, emerged to advocate for better wages, shorter hours, and improved working conditions, but often faced violent opposition from employers and government authorities

Social and Economic Inequalities

• The concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few industrial magnates led to growing income inequality and social tensions, as exemplified by the Panic of 1893 and the rise of Populist and Progressive movements
• Rapid industrialization and urbanization led to the growth of urban slums characterized by overcrowding, poor sanitation, and high rates of disease and crime
• The mechanization of agriculture and the rise of commercial farming led to the decline of small family farms and the displacement of rural populations contributing to the growth of cities and the rise of a landless agricultural proletariat
• African Americans, particularly in the South, faced systemic discrimination, segregation, and violence, as exemplified by the rise of Jim Crow laws and the widespread practice of lynching
• Native American communities faced forced assimilation, land dispossession, and cultural destruction as a result of government policies such as the Dawes Act of 1887 and the establishment of Indian boarding schools
• The rise of mass consumerism and the growth of a middle class, fueled by rising wages and the availability of affordable consumer goods, transformed American culture and values emphasizing individualism, materialism, and social mobility