Labor movements and workers' rights were crucial during the Industrialization era. As factories boomed and cities grew, workers faced harsh conditions, long hours, and low pay. Unions formed to fight for better treatment, but faced fierce opposition from employers and the government.

The struggle between labor and capital defined this period. Strikes and conflicts like the Haymarket Affair and Pullman Strike showed the growing power of organized labor. Though often defeated, these efforts laid the groundwork for future reforms and improved workers' rights.

Labor union development and strategies

Emergence and early labor organizations

• Labor unions emerged in the United States in the early 19th century as a response to the harsh working conditions and low wages faced by workers during the Industrial Revolution
• The National Labor Union, formed in 1866, was one of the first national labor organizations in the United States advocating for an eight-hour workday and improved working conditions
• The Knights of Labor, founded in 1869, grew to become one of the largest labor organizations in the late 19th century promoting a vision of a cooperative society and advocating for workers' rights across various industries

American Federation of Labor and union strategies

• The American Federation of Labor (AFL), established in 1886 under the leadership of Samuel Gompers, focused on organizing skilled workers and advocating for better wages, hours, and working conditions through collective bargaining
• Labor unions employed various strategies to advocate for workers' rights, including:
  • Strikes to pressure employers and draw attention to their demands
  • Boycotts of products or companies to exert economic pressure
  • Lobbying for legislation to protect workers' rights and improve working conditions
  • Negotiating with employers through collective bargaining agreements to secure better terms for workers
• The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), founded in 1905, promoted a more radical approach to labor activism advocating for industrial unionism and the overthrow of the capitalist system

Major labor conflicts and outcomes

Significant strikes and their consequences

• The Great Railroad Strike of 1877, sparked by wage cuts and poor working conditions, spread across multiple states and resulted in violence and property damage before being suppressed by federal troops
• The Haymarket Affair of 1886 began as a peaceful rally in support of an eight-hour workday but turned violent when a bomb was thrown at police, leading to a controversial trial and the execution of four labor activists
• The Homestead Strike of 1892, involving steel workers at the Carnegie Steel Company in Pennsylvania, ended in violence when the company hired Pinkerton detectives to break the strike resulting in a major setback for the labor movement
• The Pullman Strike of 1894, led by the American Railway Union against the Pullman Palace Car Company, disrupted rail traffic across the nation until President Grover Cleveland intervened with federal troops resulting in a defeat for the union

Impact on the labor movement

• The outcomes of these major labor conflicts were often unfavorable to workers, with strikes being suppressed by force, unions weakened, and labor leaders facing legal repercussions
• Despite the setbacks, these conflicts raised public awareness of labor issues and contributed to the gradual improvement of working conditions and the recognition of workers' rights in the early 20th century
• The struggles and sacrifices of workers during this period laid the foundation for future labor reforms and the growth of the labor movement in the United States

Challenges for workers in the late 19th century

Exploitative working conditions

• During the late 19th century, many workers endured long hours, often working 12 to 16 hours per day, six days a week leaving little time for rest, family, or personal pursuits
• Low wages were a persistent problem, with many workers earning barely enough to sustain themselves and their families leading to poverty and poor living conditions
• Factories and workplaces often lacked proper safety measures, resulting in frequent accidents, injuries, and deaths due to hazardous equipment, poor ventilation, and exposure to toxic substances (mining, textile mills)

Vulnerable populations and lack of opportunities

• Child labor was common, with children as young as five years old working in factories, mines, and other dangerous occupations often for lower wages than adult workers
• Workers had little job security, as they could be fired at will without warning or compensation leaving them vulnerable to unemployment and financial hardship
• Discrimination based on race, gender, and ethnicity was prevalent, with women and minority workers often receiving lower wages and facing additional challenges in the workplace (segregated workplaces, unequal pay)
• Workers had limited access to education and opportunities for advancement, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and limiting social mobility

Government policies vs worker rights

Antitrust laws and their impact on unions

• The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, while initially intended to regulate monopolies, was often used against labor unions treating their activities as illegal restraints on trade
• The Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 provided some exemptions for labor unions from antitrust laws, stating that labor organizations were not illegal combinations in restraint of trade but its effectiveness was limited by narrow judicial interpretations

Court decisions and labor legislation

• The Supreme Court's decision in Lochner v. New York (1905) struck down a New York law limiting bakers' working hours, setting a precedent for limiting government regulation of labor conditions based on the concept of "liberty of contract"
• The Erdman Act of 1898 prohibited discrimination against railroad workers based on their union membership and provided for mediation of labor disputes but it was later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court
• The Keating-Owen Child Labor Act of 1916, which prohibited the interstate commerce of goods produced by child labor, was struck down by the Supreme Court in Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918) hindering efforts to address child labor issues at the federal level
• The Adamson Act of 1916 established an eight-hour workday for railroad workers, representing a significant victory for labor advocates and setting a precedent for future legislation on work hours
• While government policies and court decisions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries often favored business interests over workers' rights, they gradually began to acknowledge the need for labor protections laying the groundwork for more comprehensive labor laws in the 1930s and beyond (National Labor Relations Act, Fair Labor Standards Act)