Sumerian city-states were the building blocks of ancient Mesopotamian civilization. These urban centers, governed by priest-kings and assemblies, combined political power with religious authority. The ensi and lugal ruled over stratified societies, from nobles to slaves.

Temples, with their towering ziggurats, were the heart of Sumerian life. They controlled vast economic resources and employed many people. The invention of cuneiform writing in cities like Uruk and Ur revolutionized record-keeping and communication in the ancient world.

Political Structure

City-State Governance

• City-states were the primary political units in ancient Sumer, consisting of a central city and its surrounding agricultural lands
• Ensi served as the city-state's governor, responsible for administration, justice, and religious duties
• Lugal emerged as a powerful ruler during times of war, often gaining control over multiple city-states and forming dynasties
• Assemblies, composed of free male citizens, played a role in decision-making and could influence the selection of leaders

Theocratic Rule

• Sumerian city-states were theocracies, where religious and political power were closely intertwined
• Priest-kings, believed to be representatives of the gods, held significant authority and were responsible for maintaining the favor of the deities
• Social hierarchy was stratified, with the priest-kings and nobility at the top, followed by free citizens, and at the bottom were slaves (often captured during conflicts)

Religion and Economy

Mesopotamian Pantheon

• Sumerians worshipped a diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses, each associated with specific aspects of nature and human life (Enki, god of wisdom and Inanna, goddess of love and war)
• Deities were believed to reside in the temples, which were the center of religious, economic, and social life in the city-states
• Ziggurats, massive stepped temple towers, were constructed as a means to connect the earthly realm with the divine and serve as a focal point for religious ceremonies

Temple Economy

• Temples owned large tracts of land and controlled a significant portion of the city-state's economic resources
• Agricultural produce, crafts, and trade were often managed by the temples, with a portion of the goods being offered to the deities
• Temples employed a large number of people, including priests, scribes, craftsmen, and laborers, creating a complex economic system

Writing System

• Cuneiform, one of the earliest known writing systems, was developed by the Sumerians around 3500 BCE
• Cuneiform script consisted of wedge-shaped impressions made on clay tablets using a reed stylus
• Originally used for record-keeping purposes (inventories and transactions), cuneiform evolved to represent the Sumerian language and was later adapted by other Mesopotamian civilizations (Akkadians and Babylonians)

Major Cities

• Sumer, located in southern Mesopotamia, was the region where the Sumerian civilization flourished
• Uruk, one of the oldest and largest Sumerian cities, was a major center of trade, religion, and innovation (home to the legendary hero Gilgamesh)
• Ur, another prominent Sumerian city, was known for its impressive ziggurat dedicated to the moon god Nanna and its role as a center of commerce
• Lagash, a city-state that gained prominence during the Early Dynastic period, was known for its conflicts with neighboring city-states and its famous ruler, Gudea, who was celebrated for his piety and building projects