Mesopotamian writing systems revolutionized communication and record-keeping. Cuneiform, developed by the Sumerians around 3500 BCE, started as simple pictographs and evolved into complex symbols impressed on clay tablets. This innovation allowed for the preservation of knowledge and administration of complex societies.

Mesopotamian literature flourished, producing epic tales like Gilgamesh and creation myths like Enuma Elish. Scribes played a crucial role in recording these stories and maintaining administrative records. The development of writing and literature in Mesopotamia laid the foundation for future civilizations and our understanding of human history.

Writing System

Development of Cuneiform

• Cuneiform earliest known writing system developed by Sumerians in ancient Mesopotamia around 3500 BCE
• Began as pictographs, simplified images representing objects or ideas, which evolved into more abstract symbols over time
• Symbols were impressed onto soft clay tablets using a reed stylus, creating wedge-shaped marks that give cuneiform its distinctive appearance
• Clay tablets were then dried in the sun or baked in kilns to harden and preserve the written information

Tools and Materials

• Scribes used clay tablets as the primary writing surface due to the abundance of clay in the region
• Stylus, a reed with a triangular tip, was used to impress the cuneiform symbols into the soft clay
• Cylinder seals, small stone cylinders engraved with intricate designs and inscriptions, were rolled across clay tablets to create official seals and signatures
  • Used for administrative purposes, such as sealing containers, marking property ownership, and authenticating documents

Languages

Sumerian Language

• Sumerian language is a linguistic isolate, unrelated to any known language family
• Spoken by the Sumerians, one of the earliest civilizations in ancient Mesopotamia (southern Iraq)
• Sumerian was gradually replaced by Akkadian as the dominant language in the region but remained in use as a literary and liturgical language

Akkadian Language

• Akkadian language belongs to the Semitic language family and was spoken by the Akkadian people in ancient Mesopotamia
• Became the dominant language in the region, replacing Sumerian, and served as a lingua franca for trade and diplomacy
• Akkadian had two main dialects: Assyrian in the north and Babylonian in the south
• Adopted and adapted the cuneiform writing system originally developed by the Sumerians

Literary Works

Mythological and Religious Texts

• Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest known works of literature, tells the story of a legendary king of Uruk and his quest for immortality
  • Explores themes of friendship, loss, and the human condition
• Enuma Elish, the Babylonian creation myth, describes the creation of the world and the rise of the god Marduk to supremacy in the pantheon
• Hymns and prayers were composed to honor and communicate with various deities in the Mesopotamian pantheon
  • Example: Hymn to Inanna, which praises the goddess of love, fertility, and warfare

Other Notable Works

• Atrahasis, an Akkadian epic that tells the story of a great flood and the creation of humans
• Descent of Inanna, a Sumerian myth that recounts the goddess Inanna's journey to the underworld
• Sumerian King List, a chronicle of the kings of Sumer, including their reigns and achievements

Record Keeping

Scribes and Their Roles

• Scribes were highly trained professionals responsible for writing, recording, and managing information in ancient Mesopotamia
• Underwent extensive education in writing, mathematics, and other subjects to prepare for their roles
• Worked in various settings, such as temples, palaces, and private households, to maintain records and correspondence

Libraries and Archives

• Mesopotamian cities had libraries and archives that housed collections of clay tablets containing literary, religious, and administrative texts
• Example: Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh, which contained thousands of clay tablets covering a wide range of subjects

Administrative and Legal Documents

• Royal inscriptions recorded the achievements, conquests, and building projects of Mesopotamian kings
  • Example: Stele of Hammurabi, which bears the Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest known sets of laws
• Legal codes, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu and the Code of Hammurabi, established rules and penalties for various offenses
• Administrative records documented economic transactions, inventories, and other aspects of daily life in Mesopotamian cities and institutions
  • Example: Cuneiform tablets from the city of Uruk, which detail rations distributed to workers and the management of agricultural resources