Gender isn't as simple as we once thought. It's not just about biology, but a complex mix of social expectations, cultural norms, and personal identity. Our daily actions and choices actively shape and reinforce gender roles.

Different cultures have diverse ways of understanding gender. Some recognize more than two genders, challenging the idea of a strict male-female binary. This variety shows how gender is largely a social construct, influenced by cultural context.

Essentialist Views and Gender Performance

Essentialist views of gender roles

• Essentialist views attribute gender differences to innate biological factors assuming gender roles and behaviors are fixed and determined by sex (male and female)
• Reinforces binary gender categories portrays traditional gender roles as natural and inevitable
• Limits opportunities for individuals to deviate from prescribed norms justifying gender inequalities

Performance of gender in daily life

• Gender is a social construct actively performed and reinforced through everyday behaviors and presentations ("doing gender")
• Gender is not a stable identity but an ongoing accomplishment shaped by cultural norms and expectations
  • Dressing in gender-specific clothing and styles (dresses for women, suits for men)
  • Engaging in gender-typed occupations and activities (nursing for women, construction for men)
• Interactions with others shape and maintain gender performance by providing social rewards for conforming to norms or sanctions for transgressing boundaries
• Gender expression involves the external manifestation of one's gender identity through clothing, behavior, and appearance

Gender Expectations, Masculinity, and Intersex

Public vs private spheres in gender

• Historically, public and private spheres have been gendered spaces
  • Public sphere associated with men, politics, and paid labor while private sphere associated with women, domesticity, and unpaid labor
• Gendered division of spheres shapes expectations for behavior and roles
  • Women expected to prioritize caregiving and emotional labor in the private sphere while men expected to be breadwinners and decision-makers in the public sphere
• Feminist movements have challenged the rigid separation arguing for greater gender equality and access to both spheres recognizing the political nature of personal and private experiences

Cultural construction of masculinity

• Hegemonic masculinity is the dominant cultural ideal of manhood emphasizing strength, aggression, emotional stoicism, and heterosexuality
  • Serves to maintain patriarchal power and subordinate alternative masculinities
• Example: Fraternity culture in American colleges
  • Encourages hypermasculine behaviors (binge drinking, sexual conquest)
  • Reinforces homophobia and gender segregation through rituals and practices perpetuating a narrow definition of acceptable manhood
• Gender roles define societal expectations for behavior, attitudes, and activities based on perceived gender

Intersex and binary gender categories

• Intersex refers to individuals born with ambiguous genitalia or sex characteristics (chromosomes, hormones, anatomy) that do not fit typical definitions of male or female
  • Occurs in approximately 1.7% of the population
• The existence of intersex challenges the assumption of a strict gender binary revealing that biological sex exists on a spectrum rather than discrete categories
  • Highlights the social and medical construction of gender through "corrective" surgeries
• Intersex activists advocate for bodily autonomy and recognition of gender diversity opposing non-consensual surgeries on infants and challenging the pathologization of intersex as a "disorder"

Cross-Cultural Gender Systems

Cross-cultural gender systems

• Many cultures recognize genders beyond the male-female binary
  • Native American two-spirit individuals who embody masculine and feminine qualities
  • Indian hijras considered a third gender performing ceremonial roles
  • Indonesian Bugis society with five gender categories
• Alternative gender systems often have specific social roles and expectations
  1. Two-spirit people historically served as mediators, healers, and artisans
  2. Hijras believed to have power to bless or curse fertility and perform at weddings
• The existence of multiple genders challenges Western notions of binary categories demonstrating cultural specificity of gender systems and norms
  • Highlights diversity of human experiences and identities across societies

Gender Identity and Socialization

• Gender identity refers to an individual's internal sense of being male, female, or another gender
• Gender socialization is the process by which individuals learn and internalize gender norms and expectations from their culture
• Social constructionism emphasizes that gender categories and roles are created and maintained through social interactions and cultural practices
• The gender spectrum recognizes that gender identities and expressions exist on a continuum rather than within a strict binary