Sex, gender, and sexuality are complex aspects of human identity that vary across cultures. Biological sex differs from socially constructed gender roles, while sexuality encompasses diverse practices and norms shaped by cultural contexts.

Human evolution and gender roles are interconnected, with theories challenging traditional views. Alternative hypotheses emphasize women's contributions and cooperative breeding, highlighting the need for a holistic approach to understanding gender dynamics in societies.

Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

Sex vs gender distinctions

• Sex refers to biological and physiological characteristics that define males and females (chromosomes, hormones, anatomical features)
• Gender encompasses socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities that vary across cultures and can change over time
  • Gender performativity theory suggests that gender is not innate but is constantly performed through repeated actions and behaviors
• Understanding the distinction is crucial for cross-cultural studies to avoid ethnocentric assumptions about gender roles and norms and allows for a more nuanced understanding of human diversity

Cultural expressions of sexuality

• Sexuality is culturally constructed and varies across societies with diverse practices and norms
  • Polygamy involves having multiple spouses (common in some African and Islamic societies)
  • Polyandry refers to a woman having multiple husbands (practiced in parts of Tibet and Nepal)
  • Same-sex relationships and marriages are accepted in some cultures (Native American two-spirit traditions, ancient Greek pederasty)
  • Third gender or non-binary gender identities exist in various societies (hijras in India, fa'afafine in Samoa)
• Anthropologists study the social, cultural, and historical contexts shaping sexuality to challenge assumptions of universal norms and understand diversity
• Cultural relativism is essential when examining diverse sexual practices and norms across cultures

Limitations of primate research

• Primate research has been used to explain human gender roles and sexual behavior, such as male dominance (chimpanzees), female mate choice (bonobos), and sexual dimorphism (gorillas)
• However, there are limitations in applying primate research to humans:
  • Humans have unique cultural and social influences on behavior that primates lack
  • Primate studies often focus on a limited number of species, not capturing the full diversity
  • Oversimplification of complex human social dynamics can occur when drawing direct comparisons
• Anthropologists should critically assess the relevance and limitations of primate research and use interdisciplinary approaches for a more comprehensive understanding

Human Evolution and Gender Roles

Alternatives to "man the hunter"

• The "man the hunter" hypothesis proposes that hunting by males drove human evolution and gender roles, assuming a universal division of labor based on sex
• Alternative theories challenge this notion:
  1. "Woman the gatherer" emphasizes the importance of female-gathered resources (plants, small game) in human diets and evolution
  2. Cooperative breeding highlights the role of alloparental care (grandmothers, siblings) in human reproductive success and social organization
  3. Embodied capital theory suggests that skills and knowledge, rather than physical strength, are key to reproductive success in humans
• Critiques of "man the hunter" include:
  • Overlooking the contributions of women in human evolution and subsistence
  • Relying on limited archaeological evidence and ethnographic analogies from modern hunter-gatherers
  • Perpetuating gender stereotypes and ignoring cultural diversity in gender roles and division of labor
• A more holistic approach considers the complex interplay of ecological, social, and cultural factors in shaping human evolution and gender roles, recognizing the flexibility and variability across societies

Gender, Power, and Society

• Gender stratification refers to the unequal distribution of power, prestige, and resources between genders in society
• Intersectionality examines how various social categories (gender, race, class) interact to create unique experiences of oppression or privilege
• Kinship systems play a crucial role in shaping gender roles, inheritance patterns, and social organization across cultures
• Reproductive rights and access to healthcare are important factors in understanding gender dynamics and women's empowerment globally
• Heteronormativity, the assumption that heterosexuality is the default or "normal" sexual orientation, influences societal expectations and norms