India's struggle for independence was a pivotal moment in world history. It marked the end of British colonial rule and the birth of the world's largest democracy. The movement, led by figures like Gandhi, employed non-violent resistance to challenge British authority.

The path to independence was complex, involving diverse strategies and ideologies. It culminated in the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, a process marred by violence and mass migration. Post-independence, India faced challenges in nation-building and economic development.

Origins of Indian nationalism

• Indian nationalism emerged as a response to British colonial rule in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with Indians seeking to assert their cultural identity and political autonomy
• The growth of nationalism was fueled by the spread of Western education, which exposed Indians to ideas of self-determination and representative government, as well as by economic policies that favored British interests over Indian ones

British colonial rule in India

• British rule in India began with the East India Company in the 18th century and was formalized with the Government of India Act of 1858, which placed India under direct British administration
• Colonial policies aimed to extract resources and wealth from India, while also imposing British cultural and educational standards
• The British introduced some reforms, such as banning sati (widow burning) and child marriage, but overall their rule was marked by economic exploitation, political repression, and cultural subordination

Indian National Congress formation

• The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885 by a group of educated, middle-class Indians who sought to promote Indian interests and reform within the British system
• Initially, the INC focused on issues such as expanding Indian participation in government, promoting economic development, and protecting Indian culture
• Over time, the INC became more radical in its demands for self-rule and eventually became the leading organization in the Indian independence movement

Early nationalist leaders and movements

• Early nationalist leaders, such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai, advocated for more aggressive resistance to British rule, including boycotts of British goods and institutions
• The Swadeshi movement (1905-1908) encouraged the use of Indian-made goods and the boycott of British products as a form of economic nationalism
• The partition of Bengal in 1905 sparked widespread protests and helped to galvanize the nationalist movement, leading to the rise of more radical leaders and tactics

Rise of Mahatma Gandhi

• Mahatma Gandhi emerged as the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, advocating a philosophy of non-violent resistance and mass civil disobedience
• Gandhi's approach to nationalism was rooted in his belief in the power of truth, non-violence, and the inherent dignity of all people, regardless of caste or religion

Gandhi's background and philosophy

• Born in 1869 in Gujarat, Gandhi studied law in London before working as a lawyer in South Africa, where he experienced firsthand the injustices of racial discrimination
• Gandhi's philosophy of satyagraha (truth force) emphasized the use of non-violent resistance, including civil disobedience, to challenge injustice and oppression
• He believed that Indians had to liberate themselves not only from British rule but also from their own internal weaknesses, such as the caste system and religious divisions

Non-cooperation movement

• In 1920, Gandhi launched the non-cooperation movement, which called on Indians to boycott British institutions, including schools, courts, and government offices
• The movement also encouraged the development of Indian-run institutions, such as schools and factories, to promote self-reliance and reduce dependence on the British
• Although the non-cooperation movement was called off in 1922 after incidents of violence, it helped to mobilize mass support for the independence movement and established Gandhi as a national leader

Civil disobedience and salt march

• In 1930, Gandhi launched the civil disobedience movement, which included the famous salt march to protest the British monopoly on salt production
• During the 24-day march, Gandhi and his followers walked 240 miles to the coast, where they made their own salt in defiance of British law
• The salt march and subsequent acts of civil disobedience, such as the boycott of foreign cloth, helped to further galvanize support for the independence movement and put pressure on the British government

Key events in independence struggle

• The Indian independence struggle was marked by a series of key events that shaped the course of the movement and ultimately led to the end of British rule in 1947
• These events included both peaceful protests and violent confrontations, as well as political negotiations and legislative reforms

Amritsar massacre and aftermath

• In April 1919, British troops opened fire on a peaceful gathering of Indians in Amritsar, killing hundreds and wounding many more
• The massacre sparked outrage across India and helped to radicalize the independence movement, with many Indians losing faith in the possibility of reform within the British system
• In the aftermath of the massacre, the British government passed the Rowlatt Acts, which allowed for the arrest and detention of Indians without trial, further fueling anti-British sentiment

Government of India Act of 1935

• The Government of India Act of 1935 was a major constitutional reform that granted Indians a greater degree of self-government, including the establishment of elected provincial legislatures
• However, the act also retained significant powers for the British government, including control over defense and foreign affairs
• The act was seen by many Indians as a half-measure that did not go far enough in granting independence, and it helped to further polarize the nationalist movement

Quit India movement during WWII

• In 1942, with World War II raging, Gandhi launched the Quit India movement, calling on the British to grant India immediate independence or face a mass campaign of non-violent resistance
• The British responded by arresting Gandhi and other nationalist leaders, sparking widespread protests and acts of sabotage across India
• Although the Quit India movement was suppressed by force, it helped to demonstrate the depth of Indian opposition to British rule and the urgency of the demand for independence

Partition and independence

• The end of British rule in India was accompanied by the partition of the country into two separate states, India and Pakistan, based on religious demographics
• The partition process was marked by widespread violence and mass migration, as millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs crossed the newly-drawn borders in search of safety

Muslim League and two-nation theory

• The All-India Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, advocated for the creation of a separate Muslim state, arguing that Muslims constituted a distinct nation within India
• Jinnah's two-nation theory held that Hindus and Muslims were fundamentally different and could not coexist peacefully within a single state
• The Muslim League's demand for Pakistan gained traction in the 1940s, as communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims escalated and the prospect of a united, independent India became increasingly uncertain

British withdrawal and partition plan

• In February 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that the British would withdraw from India by June 1948, leaving it up to Indians to determine their own political future
• The British government, led by Lord Mountbatten, put forward a partition plan that divided India into two separate states, with Muslim-majority areas forming Pakistan and Hindu-majority areas forming India
• The partition plan was accepted by both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League, despite reservations about the logistical challenges and potential for violence

Violence and mass migration after partition

• The announcement of the partition plan sparked widespread communal violence between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, particularly in the Punjab and Bengal regions
• Millions of people were forced to flee their homes and cross the newly-drawn borders in search of safety, with estimates of the death toll ranging from several hundred thousand to over a million
• The mass migration and violence left a legacy of trauma and bitterness on both sides of the border, and the political and social consequences of partition continue to shape relations between India and Pakistan to this day

Challenges of post-independence India

• In the aftermath of independence and partition, India faced a range of challenges in building a stable, democratic, and prosperous nation
• These challenges included integrating the princely states, establishing democratic institutions, and promoting economic development and modernization

Integration of princely states

• At the time of independence, India was divided into two main administrative units: British India, which was directly governed by the British, and the princely states, which were nominally independent but under British suzerainty
• The integration of the princely states into the new Indian nation was a complex and sometimes contentious process, with some rulers initially resisting accession to India
• Under the leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the Indian government was able to negotiate the peaceful integration of most of the princely states, although disputes over certain territories (such as Kashmir) continue to this day

Establishing a democratic government

• India's post-independence leaders, including Jawaharlal Nehru, were committed to establishing a democratic system of government based on universal adult suffrage and a secular, pluralistic society
• The Indian Constitution, which came into effect in 1950, enshrined these principles and established a parliamentary system of government with a strong central government and a federal structure
• However, the process of building democratic institutions and a culture of political participation was a gradual one, and India faced challenges such as linguistic and regional tensions, caste-based discrimination, and the rise of communal politics

Economic development and modernization

• At independence, India inherited an economy that was largely agrarian, with limited industrial development and widespread poverty
• Nehru's government pursued a strategy of state-led economic planning and import-substitution industrialization, with a focus on developing heavy industries and infrastructure
• While this approach helped to lay the foundations for India's economic growth, it also led to inefficiencies and a lack of competitiveness in some sectors, and India continued to face challenges such as rural poverty, unemployment, and regional disparities

Legacy of Indian independence

• The Indian independence movement and the establishment of an independent, democratic India had far-reaching consequences, both within India and beyond
• India's experience served as a model for other anti-colonial struggles, while also highlighting the challenges of nation-building in a diverse and complex society

India as a model for decolonization

• India's non-violent independence struggle, led by figures such as Gandhi and Nehru, inspired anti-colonial movements in other parts of the world, such as Africa and Southeast Asia
• The Indian experience demonstrated the power of mass mobilization and civil disobedience in challenging colonial rule, and provided a template for other nationalist movements
• At the same time, the partition of India and the violence that accompanied it served as a cautionary tale about the dangers of communal politics and the challenges of building a pluralistic society

Enduring tensions with Pakistan

• The partition of India and the creation of Pakistan as a separate Muslim-majority state left a legacy of tension and conflict between the two countries
• Disputes over the status of Kashmir, which was claimed by both countries, led to several wars and ongoing military tensions
• The two countries also faced challenges in managing shared resources, such as water from the Indus River system, and in dealing with cross-border terrorism and political instability

India's role in the Non-Aligned Movement

• In the Cold War era, India emerged as a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, which sought to maintain a neutral stance between the United States and the Soviet Union
• Under Nehru's leadership, India pursued a foreign policy based on the principles of non-alignment, anti-colonialism, and peaceful coexistence
• India's role in the Non-Aligned Movement helped to give voice to the concerns of developing countries and to promote a more multipolar international order, although it also sometimes put India at odds with the major powers and limited its ability to pursue its own strategic interests