African decolonization marked the end of European colonial rule after World War II. Driven by African nationalism and international pressure, European powers gradually relinquished control, leading to independence for most African nations by the 1970s.

The process varied from peaceful transitions to violent struggles. New nations faced challenges like political instability, economic difficulties, and the legacy of arbitrary borders. Pan-Africanism emerged as a vision for unity and cooperation among African states.

End of European colonialism

• The decline of European colonialism in Africa began after World War II as African nationalism grew and colonial powers faced increasing international pressure to grant independence
• European countries, weakened by the war and facing their own economic challenges, began to see the costs of maintaining colonies as outweighing the benefits
• The process of decolonization, while ultimately leading to the independence of almost all African nations by the 1970s, was often marked by violence, political instability, and ongoing economic and cultural ties to the former colonial powers

Rise of African nationalism

Factors driving nationalism

• Exposure to Western ideas of self-determination and democracy through education and experiences in World Wars I and II
• Resentment of colonial exploitation, racism, and lack of political representation
• Growth of African intellectual and middle classes who led calls for independence
• Inspiration from successful independence movements in other parts of the world (India, Indonesia)

Key nationalist leaders

• Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) - led non-violent resistance and became first prime minister of independent Ghana
• Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya) - central figure in Mau Mau Rebellion against British rule
• Patrice Lumumba (Congo) - first democratically elected leader of independent Congo
• Ahmed Ben Bella (Algeria) - key leader in Algeria's war for independence from France

Goals of nationalist movements

• Achieving political independence and self-governance
• Ending colonial economic exploitation and promoting African economic development
• Asserting African cultural identity and rejecting assimilation into European culture
• Promoting Pan-African unity and solidarity among newly independent states

Paths to independence

Peaceful transitions

• Some countries, such as Ghana and Nigeria, achieved independence through negotiated transfers of power
• These transitions often involved a gradual process of increasing self-governance and eventual full independence
• Peaceful transitions were more likely in colonies with less entrenched white settler populations and where nationalist movements had strong, unified leadership

Violent struggles

• In colonies with large white settler populations resistant to majority rule (Algeria, Kenya, Zimbabwe), independence often came through armed struggle
• Violent resistance took forms like guerrilla warfare (Algeria's FLN), rural insurgencies (Kenya's Mau Mau Rebellion), and protracted civil wars (Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique)
• Violence was also common in the Congo, where regional, ethnic and Cold War rivalries led to a complex crisis after independence

Role of international pressure

• The United Nations and the international community increasingly supported self-determination for colonized peoples
• The 1960 UN Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples asserted the right to self-determination
• Pressure from the United States, Soviet Union, and newly independent Asian and African states in the UN helped push European powers to decolonize
• However, Cold War rivalries also led to foreign interference and proxy conflicts in newly independent African states

Challenges of post-colonial Africa

Political instability

• Lack of experience with democratic governance after decades of colonial rule
• Ethnic and regional rivalries manipulated by colonial "divide and rule" policies
• Military coups, one-party states, and dictatorships became common in the decades after independence

Economic difficulties

• Economies structured around exporting raw materials to Europe, leading to dependency and underdevelopment
• Lack of industrialization and trained professionals after neglect of education under colonialism
• Ongoing economic ties and exploitation by former colonial powers and foreign corporations

Social and cultural impact

• Legacy of racial and cultural hierarchies from colonial era
• Tensions between traditional and Westernized elites and ways of life
• Brain drain as educated Africans sought opportunities abroad
• Challenges of forging national identities and unity in states with arbitrarily drawn borders

Legacy of colonialism

Arbitrary borders

• European powers drew colonial borders without regard for pre-existing ethnic, linguistic, or political boundaries
• This led to states that grouped together diverse and sometimes rival peoples, while dividing others across borders
• Conflicts and separatist movements arose in many countries (Nigeria's Biafra, Congo's Katanga) as a result of these arbitrary divisions

Ethnic and religious conflicts

• Colonial policies of favoring some groups over others exacerbated ethnic and religious tensions
• In some cases, European-educated elites from favored groups dominated post-colonial governments, leading to resentment and conflict
• Examples include the Hutu-Tutsi divide in Rwanda and Burundi, the north-south divide in Sudan, and Christian-Muslim tensions in Nigeria

Neocolonialism and dependency

• Many African economies remained dependent on exporting raw materials to Europe and importing manufactured goods
• Foreign aid and loans often came with strings attached, such as austerity measures or favorable treatment for European companies
• France in particular maintained a strong influence in its former West and Central African colonies, intervening militarily and supporting friendly regimes

Pan-Africanism and African unity

Concept and goals

• Vision of solidarity and cooperation among all people of African descent worldwide
• Emerged among African diaspora intellectuals in early 20th century and gained traction after World War II
• Seeks to promote political and economic integration of African states and assert African identity and influence on the world stage

Organization of African Unity (OAU)

• Formed in 1963 to promote unity, defend sovereignty, and eradicate colonialism
• Included almost all independent African states
• Helped organize opposition to apartheid in South Africa and settler rule in Zimbabwe
• Mediated some regional conflicts and promoted economic cooperation

Successes and limitations

• Provided a forum for African states to coordinate policies and express solidarity
• Helped hasten the end of formal colonialism and white minority rule in Africa
• However, the OAU was often limited by its commitment to non-interference in member states' internal affairs
• Economic integration efforts like the African Economic Community made limited progress
• The OAU was replaced by the African Union in 2002, which has aimed to take a more interventionist approach to promoting democracy and human rights

Case studies

Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah

• Gold Coast colony gained independence as Ghana in 1957, with Kwame Nkrumah as prime minister
• Nkrumah was a leading advocate of Pan-Africanism and African socialism
• He pursued ambitious modernization projects and asserted Ghana's role as a leader of African liberation
• However, Nkrumah faced opposition and was overthrown in a 1966 coup, with Ghana experiencing economic and political instability in following decades

Algeria's war for independence

• Algeria was considered an integral part of France, with a large European settler population
• An armed independence struggle led by the FLN began in 1954, met with brutal French counterinsurgency
• The war saw atrocities on both sides and drew international attention
• Algeria finally gained independence in 1962 after a peace agreement and referendum
• The war had a profound impact on French politics and society and left a legacy of complex ties between the two countries

Congo Crisis and Lumumba

• The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 with Patrice Lumumba as prime minister
• A mutiny in the army and the secession of the mineral-rich Katanga province led to a complex crisis
• Cold War powers intervened on different sides, with the UN sending a peacekeeping force
• Lumumba was deposed and killed in 1961 with the involvement of Belgian and American intelligence
• The crisis ended with the installation of the Western-backed Mobutu Sese Seko, who would rule as a dictator until 1997

International context

Cold War influences

• The United States and Soviet Union competed for influence in newly independent African states
• Both sides offered aid and military support to friendly governments and rebel movements
• Proxy conflicts were fought in countries like Angola, Mozambique, and Ethiopia
• The Cold War often exacerbated internal conflicts and propped up dictatorial regimes in the name of fighting communism or capitalism

Non-Aligned Movement

• Many African leaders sought to avoid aligning with either superpower bloc
• The Non-Aligned Movement, founded in 1961, brought together developing nations committed to neutrality and independence
• Members included Ghana's Nkrumah, Egypt's Nasser, and Yugoslavia's Tito
• The movement sought to promote the interests of the "Third World" in the face of neocolonialism and superpower hegemony

Relations with former colonial powers

• France, Britain, Belgium, and Portugal maintained varying degrees of political, economic, and military influence in their former colonies
• France in particular intervened militarily to support friendly regimes in former colonies like Gabon and Chad
• The British Commonwealth provided a forum for cooperation among former British colonies, though some, like Ghana, left due to its association with imperialism
• The Lomé Convention of 1975 governed economic relations between the European Economic Community and former colonies in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, providing aid and trade preferences but also cementing dependency