AP World History: Modern
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🌍ap world history: modern review
7.1 Shifting Power After 1900
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Global Balance of Power
At the start of the 20th century, the Western powers—Britain, France, the Netherlands—dominated global politics, largely due to their imperial holdings and industrialized economies. Their control over global trade routes, colonial resources, and military power allowed them to exert significant influence worldwide.
Meanwhile, older land-based empires—notably the Ottoman, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Qing empires—were declining. They struggled to modernize in the face of both internal weakness and external imperial pressure. By contrast, Japan had successfully industrialized after the Meiji Restoration and emerged as a rising global power, while the United States gained overseas territories and rapidly increased its economic and military presence.
The early 20th century thus witnessed a dramatic reconfiguration of global power: empires fell, new states rose, and Western dominance began to face resistance from within and beyond its colonial borders.
Collapse of Empires
The Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, once a powerful Islamic empire, had been losing territory and political strength since the 18th century. In the 19th century, Ottoman leaders initiated the Tanzimat Reforms, aimed at modernizing the legal, military, and educational systems.
- Tanzimat Reforms (1839–1876):
- Abolished slavery and reorganized the army
- Introduced secular schools and European-style legal codes
- Sought to centralize administration and reduce corruption
⭐
While these reforms modernized parts of the empire, they failed to halt its overall decline. Resistance from conservative factions, rising nationalism among ethnic minorities, and continued economic weakness undermined efforts at reform.
In 1908, the Young Turks—a group of military officers and intellectuals—staged a coup and implemented further constitutional reforms. However, the empire was soon drawn into World War I, and its defeat led to its formal collapse.
- In 1923, the remnants of the empire became the Republic of Turkey, ending more than six centuries of Ottoman rule.
The Qing Dynasty (China)
The Qing Dynasty faced immense pressure in the 19th century from both foreign imperialism and domestic unrest. Repeated defeats in wars (e.g., the Opium Wars) and the imposition of unequal treaties weakened the state.
- Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s–1890s):
- Attempted to adopt Western technology while preserving Confucian values
- Built railroads, arsenals, and shipyards
- Ultimately failed due to elite resistance and lack of coordination
Meanwhile, massive uprisings such as the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) and the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) revealed growing dissatisfaction among the population.
- The Taiping Rebellion blended Christian millenarianism with anti-Qing sentiment, resulting in 20–30 million deaths.
- The Boxer Rebellion targeted foreign influence and missionaries but was brutally suppressed by an eight-nation alliance.
⭐
In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution led to the fall of the Qing and the establishment of the Republic of China, ending over 2,000 years of imperial rule.
The Russian Empire and Revolution
The Russian Empire industrialized late compared to Western Europe. While the state built railroads (like the Trans-Siberian Railway) and invested in heavy industry, deep social and economic inequality persisted.
- Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905): A humiliating defeat for Russia that exposed military and political weaknesses.
- Revolution of 1905: Led to the creation of the Duma (a representative assembly), but Tsar Nicholas II retained most power.
Continued hardship, World War I losses, and mass discontent culminated in the Russian Revolutions of 1917:
- February Revolution (March in modern calendar): Overthrew the tsar and created a provisional government.
- October Revolution: The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power and founded a communist state—the first of its kind.
In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was established, representing a complete transformation of political power and ideology.
Comparison of Reforms: Tanzimat vs. Self-Strengthening
| Feature | Tanzimat Reforms (Ottoman) | Self-Strengthening Movement (Qing China) |
|---|---|---|
| Time Period | 1839–1876 | 1860s–1890s |
| Goals | Modernize administration, law, military | Adopt Western tech to strengthen military |
| Outcomes | Partial modernization, resistance from elites | Failed reforms, opposition from conservatives |
| Long-Term Impact | Precursor to Young Turk reforms, secularism | Collapse of Qing in 1911, rise of republic |
Activity: From Empire to Nation-State
| Former Empire | 20th Century Successor |
|---|---|
| Ottoman Empire | Turkey |
| Qing Dynasty | China |
| Russian Empire | Soviet Union (USSR) |
| Mughal Empire | India |
⭐ Change: While these empires collapsed, many of their successor states retained old elites or struggled to unify diverse populations under new governments.
Revolution Beyond Europe: The Mexican Revolution
While much focus is placed on Eurasian empires, Latin America also experienced upheaval in the early 20th century. The Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) arose from dissatisfaction with the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz.
- Causes:
- Land inequality and rural poverty
- Political repression
- Influence of liberal and socialist ideas
Key revolutionary figures included Emiliano Zapata (agrarian reformer) and Pancho Villa (northern guerrilla leader). The revolution ultimately led to:
- The 1917 Constitution, which included land reform, labor rights, and limits on foreign ownership
- A shift toward populism and nationalism in Mexican politics
Conclusion
The early 20th century marked a critical turning point in global history. Old empires crumbled under the weight of internal problems and external pressures, giving rise to new states and ideologies. In their place emerged revolutionary governments, republics, and, in Russia’s case, a communist superpower.
These power shifts fundamentally altered global geopolitics and set the stage for the world wars, the Cold War, and independence movements across the colonial world.
Key Terms to Review (39)
Austro-Hungarian Empire: The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a dual monarchy established in 1867, uniting the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary under a single monarch, Franz Joseph I. It was characterized by a complex political structure that aimed to manage various ethnic groups within its borders while navigating the shifting power dynamics in Europe after 1900.
Boxer Rebellion: The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China from 1899 to 1901, driven by nationalist sentiments and a desire to resist foreign imperialism. This movement arose as a response to the growing influence of foreign powers in China, particularly after the country experienced significant social and economic upheaval due to industrialization and foreign encroachment. The Boxer Rebellion highlighted the tensions between traditional Chinese values and the forces of modernization brought about by foreign intervention.
Centralized Bureaucracy: Centralized bureaucracy refers to a system of government in which most or all power and authority is concentrated in a central authority or governing body, often leading to standardized policies and regulations across the state. This form of governance is characterized by a hierarchical structure where decision-making is centralized, allowing for efficient administration and control over a large territory, which is particularly important during periods of expansion and shifting power dynamics.
Collapse of Empires: The collapse of empires refers to the process through which large and powerful political entities disintegrate or fall into decline, often due to a combination of internal strife, economic difficulties, military defeats, and rising nationalist movements. This phenomenon became increasingly prominent after 1900, as various empires faced unprecedented challenges that led to their dissolution or transformation, significantly reshaping global power dynamics.
Communist Party: The Communist Party is a political party that advocates for the principles of communism, which emphasize the collective ownership of the means of production and the establishment of a classless society. Originating in the 19th century, it gained significant influence in the 20th century, particularly after the Russian Revolution, leading to the establishment of communist states. The party played a crucial role in shifting global power dynamics, influencing resistance movements and ultimately shaping the end of the Cold War.
Duma: The Duma was a legislative assembly in the Russian Empire that was created in response to the 1905 Revolution, primarily to address demands for more representation and political reform. It represented a significant shift in governance as it marked the beginning of a constitutional monarchy, albeit with limited powers, as the Tsar retained ultimate authority. The Duma's existence highlighted the tensions between traditional autocratic rule and the growing desire for democratic governance among the Russian populace.
France: France is a country in Western Europe known for its rich history, cultural influence, and significant role in global events. Throughout history, France has been a major player in political, social, and economic changes, impacting areas such as industrialization, imperialism, world wars, and decolonization.
Global Balance of Power: The Global Balance of Power refers to the distribution of military and economic power among nations, which influences international relations and global stability. It plays a critical role in shaping alliances, conflicts, and the dynamics of world politics, especially during pivotal periods such as the shift in power after 1900, the rise of industrialization, and the geopolitical tensions during the Cold War.
Great Britain: Great Britain is an island nation located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe, consisting of England, Scotland, and Wales. Its historical influence shaped global political, economic, and cultural landscapes, particularly during periods of nationalism, imperialism, and industrialization.
Guam: Guam is an island located in the Western Pacific Ocean and is a territory of the United States. Following the Spanish-American War in 1898, Guam became strategically significant due to its location, serving as a critical naval base and influencing shifting power dynamics in the Pacific after 1900.
Hong Xiuquan: Hong Xiuquan was a Chinese religious leader who led the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing Dynasty from 1850 to 1864. He claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ and aimed to establish a new heavenly kingdom based on his interpretation of Christianity and traditional Chinese beliefs, marking a significant challenge to imperial authority during a period of shifting power dynamics in China.
Industrialization: Industrialization refers to the process of transforming economies from primarily agricultural to industrial, marked by the growth of factories, mass production, and advancements in technology. This transformation significantly influenced social, economic, and political structures worldwide, especially during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Legal Code: A legal code is a systematic collection of laws and regulations that govern a specific area of law or a particular society. These codes are crucial in establishing the legal framework within which individuals and institutions operate, ensuring clarity and consistency in the application of laws. In the context of shifting power after 1900, legal codes often reflect the social, political, and economic transformations occurring as societies grappled with modernization, colonialism, and the emergence of new ideologies.
Mao Zedong: Mao Zedong was a Chinese communist revolutionary and founding father of the People's Republic of China, who played a pivotal role in shaping modern Chinese history. His leadership marked significant shifts in power dynamics within China and influenced global communism, leading to reforms that aimed to transform the Chinese economy and society radically.
Meiji Restoration: The Meiji Restoration was a pivotal event in Japan during the late 19th century that marked the end of feudal rule and the beginning of modernization and industrialization under Emperor Meiji. This transformation led to significant changes in Japan's political, economic, and social structures, establishing it as a major world power.
Military Training: Military training refers to the systematic preparation and instruction of soldiers in the skills and knowledge necessary for effective combat and operations. This training encompasses various disciplines, including physical fitness, weapon handling, tactics, and leadership, and is essential for maintaining a capable and disciplined armed force. In the context of shifting global power dynamics after 1900, military training evolved significantly as nations recognized the need for modernization and adaptation to new warfare technologies.
Modern Factories: Modern factories are large industrial facilities that utilize advanced machinery and assembly line production methods to manufacture goods efficiently and at scale. These factories emerged during the Industrial Revolution and played a crucial role in transforming economies and societies, marking a significant shift in power dynamics in the world after 1900.
Nationalist Party (Guomindang): The Nationalist Party, known as the Guomindang (GMD), was a significant political party in China founded by Sun Yat-sen in 1912. The party aimed to modernize China and establish a republic, promoting nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood. Its activities played a crucial role in the shifting power dynamics in China after 1900, particularly in response to foreign imperialism and internal strife.
Netherlands: The Netherlands is a country located in Northwestern Europe, known for its flat landscape, extensive canal systems, and rich maritime history. After 1900, the Netherlands experienced significant political and economic shifts as it navigated the complexities of global conflicts, colonial endeavors, and changing international relations.
Overseas Colonies: Overseas colonies are territories controlled and governed by a foreign power, typically established through conquest or colonization, often for economic gain and strategic advantage. These colonies played a crucial role in shaping global trade patterns, cultural exchanges, and political dynamics, especially in the context of shifting power after 1900.
Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire was a vast and influential Islamic state that existed from the late 13th century until the early 20th century, encompassing parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It played a crucial role in shaping political, cultural, and economic landscapes across these regions, particularly as it navigated challenges related to modernization, nationalism, and imperialism.
Philippines: The Philippines is an archipelago nation in Southeast Asia, comprising over 7,000 islands, and has played a significant role in the shifting power dynamics after 1900, particularly due to its colonization by the United States following the Spanish-American War. This transition marked a critical moment in imperialism and set the stage for changes in political, social, and economic structures within the country and its interactions with global powers.
Puerto Rico: Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the Caribbean, which was ceded to the U.S. after the Spanish-American War in 1898. This territory has played a crucial role in demonstrating the shifting dynamics of power in the Americas during the early 20th century, as it became a significant strategic and economic asset for the United States in its pursuit of expansionism and influence over the region.
Qing Dynasty: The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912, and was established by the Manchu people after they overthrew the Ming Dynasty. This period is marked by significant territorial expansion, cultural exchanges, and conflicts with Western powers, influencing China's response to modernization and industrialization.
Qing China: Qing China was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912, and known for its expansionist policies and cultural developments. The Qing Dynasty saw significant territorial growth, consolidating power over vast regions in East Asia, which established it as a formidable land-based empire during its height.
Railroads: Railroads are a system of tracks and trains used for transporting goods and people over long distances, which became a crucial component of the Industrial Revolution. They revolutionized transportation, facilitating rapid movement of resources and enabling the expansion of industries, urbanization, and global trade networks.
Republic of China: The Republic of China (ROC) was established in 1912 after the fall of the Qing Dynasty, marking the end of imperial rule in China. It represented a significant shift towards modern governance, as it sought to establish a democratic government and promote national unity amidst internal strife and foreign invasion during the early 20th century.
Russia and the Russian Revolution: The Russian Revolution refers to a series of political upheavals in Russia between 1917 and 1922, which ultimately led to the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty and the establishment of a communist government under the Bolsheviks. This revolution drastically altered the political landscape of Russia and had profound implications for global power dynamics, marking a significant shift in power as empires crumbled and new ideologies emerged.
Russian Empire: The Russian Empire was a vast and influential state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution in 1917, covering Eastern Europe, Northern Asia, and parts of North America. It was marked by extensive territorial expansion and a centralized autocratic government, reflecting both the ambitions and challenges of one of history's largest empires.
Russian Revolution of 1905: The Russian Revolution of 1905 was a wave of mass political and social unrest that swept through the Russian Empire, driven by dissatisfaction with autocratic rule, economic hardship, and military defeats. This revolution marked a significant turning point, leading to the establishment of the Duma (parliament) and set the stage for future revolutionary movements in Russia.
Russo-Japanese War: The Russo-Japanese War was a conflict between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan from 1904 to 1905, primarily over territorial disputes in Manchuria and Korea. This war marked a significant shift in power dynamics in the early 20th century, showcasing Japan's emergence as a modern military power and signaling the decline of Russian imperial influence in East Asia.
Self-Strengthening Movement: The Self-Strengthening Movement was a late 19th century initiative in China aimed at modernizing the country by adopting Western technology and military practices while maintaining Confucian values. This movement emerged as a response to foreign imperialism and the internal challenges faced by the Qing dynasty, signifying an attempt to balance tradition with modernization.
Slave Trade: The Slave Trade refers to the transatlantic and trans-Saharan trade systems that forcibly transported millions of Africans to the Americas and other regions to serve as slaves. This brutal practice significantly impacted global economies, social structures, and cultural exchanges, shaping interactions between continents and influencing power dynamics throughout history.
Soviet Union: The Soviet Union, officially known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state that existed from 1922 to 1991, encompassing a vast territory across Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It played a central role in global politics, particularly during the 20th century, influencing ideological conflicts and shaping world events during and after the World Wars.
Taiping Rebellion: The Taiping Rebellion was a massive civil war in China from 1850 to 1864 led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the brother of Jesus Christ. This rebellion aimed to overthrow the Qing Dynasty and establish a new kingdom based on a unique interpretation of Christianity and radical social reforms. It reflects significant resistance to both internal governance issues and external pressures from European powers during a time of upheaval.
Tanzimat Reforms: The Tanzimat Reforms were a series of modernization and reform initiatives in the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century aimed at restructuring the empire's administration, economy, and society. These reforms were a response to internal challenges and external pressures, seeking to centralize power, promote equality among subjects, and modernize the military and economy.
United States: The United States is a federal republic established in 1776, formed from thirteen British colonies in North America. It has been a significant player in global politics, economics, and culture, influencing various movements related to nationalism, industrialization, and international conflicts throughout its history.
Western-Style Education: Western-Style Education refers to a system of education that emphasizes critical thinking, scientific inquiry, and liberal arts, rooted in European educational traditions. This approach became prominent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, significantly influencing educational reforms across various parts of the world as nations sought to modernize and compete on a global stage amidst shifting power dynamics.
Young Turks: The Young Turks were a reformist political group in the late Ottoman Empire, primarily active during the early 20th century, advocating for modernization, secularism, and national identity. They played a crucial role in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, which aimed to restore the constitutional monarchy and curb the autocratic rule of Sultan Abdulhamid II, marking a significant response to the challenges posed by industrialization and modernization.