Cities
Louis Wirth, an American sociologist, defined a city as a "permanent settlement of relatively large size, relatively high population density, and relatively diverse population with respect to social and economic status, race, and culture." Wirth's definition of a city is based on three characteristics that distinguish cities from rural areas: large size, high population density, and social stratification and heterogeneity.
According to Wirth, the large size and high population density of cities create a sense of anonymity and impersonality among residents, and the social stratification and heterogeneity of cities create a sense of diversity and complexity. These characteristics of cities, Wirth argued, have important social and psychological consequences for the people who live in them.
Some examples of cities that may fit the characteristics of Wirth's city could include:
- New York City
- London
- Tokyo
- Hong Kong
- Singapore
Wirth's definition of a city has been influential in the field of sociology and has shaped the way that scholars and policymakers have thought about the nature and function of cities. It has also been subject to criticism and revision by subsequent scholars, who have pointed out that it is based on a narrow and Western conception of cities and that it does not adequately capture the complexity and diversity of urban life in other parts of the world.
Importance Of Cities in Different Sizes
Cities of different sizes can play important roles in regional, national, and global economies and societies.
Mega cities, or cities with a population of over 10 million people, are often major economic, political, and cultural centers, and are centers of innovation and creativity. They can be engines of economic growth and development, and can provide a wide range of amenities and services for their residents. However, mega cities can also face challenges such as pollution, inequality, and the negative impacts of globalization.
Large cities, or cities with a population of over 1 million people, can also be major economic, political, and cultural centers, and can provide a wide range of amenities and services for their residents. They can also be hubs of innovation and creativity, and can play a key role in regional and national economies.
Small cities, or cities with a population of less than 1 million people, can also play important roles in regional and national economies and can provide a high quality of life for their residents. They can be centers of innovation and creativity, and can provide a range of amenities and services, such as healthcare, education, and cultural activities.
Regardless of their size, cities can be important centers of economic, social, and cultural activity, and can provide a range of benefits to their residents and to the wider region or country in which they are located.
The urban hierarchy of cities refers to the classification of cities based on their size and importance. At the bottom of the hierarchy are the smallest settlements, such as hamlets and villages, which are often rural and have a small population. Above these are towns, which are typically larger than hamlets and villages and may have more developed infrastructure and a larger population. Cities are even larger and more developed, with a population of at least 100,000 and a more diverse range of industries and occupations.
A metropolis is a large city or urban area that is the economic, cultural, and political center of a region. A megalopolis is an even larger urban area, typically consisting of multiple cities and their surrounding suburbs that have grown together to form a continuous urban region. New York City is an example of a megalopolis, as it is made up of five boroughs and has a population of over 18 million people in its metropolitan area.
| Type of City | Characteristics | Examples |
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| World City |
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| Megalopolis |
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| Alpha City |
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| Beta City |
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| Gamma City |
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New York City, London, and Tokyo are often considered to be the three main world cities, based on their economic, cultural, and political importance on a global scale. These cities are often referred to as "global cities" or "world cities," and are characterized by their high levels of economic activity, cultural influence, and connectivity to other global cities.
Other cities are often rated and ranked based on their economic, cultural, and political importance to the areas they serve, and are classified on a scale such as the Alpha, Beta, and Gamma scale. The Alpha scale is used to rank the most important global cities, while the Beta and Gamma scales are used to rank cities of increasing lower importance.
The Alpha scale includes cities such as New York City, London, and Tokyo, as well as other cities such as Paris, Hong Kong, and Singapore. The Beta scale includes cities such as Amsterdam, Barcelona, and Chicago, while the Gamma scale includes cities such as Adelaide, Bangalore, and Boston.
These scales are based on a variety of factors, such as the size and complexity of the city's economy, the level of cultural and political influence, and the extent of connectivity to other global cities. They are used to help understand the relative importance of cities in the global economy and to inform policy and investment decisions.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is a world city and how is it different from a regular city?
A world city (also called a global city) is a city that sits at the top of the world’s urban hierarchy and drives globalization. Unlike a “regular” city that mainly serves local or regional needs, a world city hosts global financial markets, headquarters of transnational corporations, major media and cultural institutions, and specialized producer services (law, finance, advertising). World cities are highly connected through global networks and linkages (air routes, finance, supply chains) and benefit from agglomeration economies—many high-value firms and skilled workers clustering together. Examples: New York City, London, Tokyo (CED EK PSO-6.B.1, EK PSO-6.B.2). On the AP exam, expect questions linking world cities to globalization, networks, and uneven development in Topic 6.3. Want a quick review? Check the Topic 6.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why do some cities drive globalization more than others?
Some cities drive globalization more because they concentrate the things global systems need: money, firms, talent, and connections. World cities like New York, London, and Tokyo host global financial markets and transnational corporation HQs, creating agglomeration economies—when related businesses and skilled workers cluster and boost productivity. They also have advanced infrastructure (airports, ports, broadband), global networks and supply-chain links, and large diaspora communities that ease international migration and trade. Political and legal systems, time-zone advantages, and cultural institutions (media, universities) amplify their global role. This matches the CED: world cities sit atop the urban hierarchy and mediate global processes (EK PSO-6.B.1–6.B.2). For AP prep, review Topic 6.3 in Fiveable’s study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How are cities connected globally and what does that actually mean?
When we say cities are “connected globally,” we mean they’re nodes in networks that move money, information, goods, and people across the world. World (global) cities like New York, London, and Tokyo sit at the top of the urban hierarchy and drive globalization by hosting global financial markets, transnational corporations, headquarters, and major media. Connections include global supply chains (goods), capital flows (investments), digital/communication networks (info), and migration/diaspora communities (people). Agglomeration economies concentrate specialized services and talent, reinforcing those linkages. On the AP exam this shows up in Topic 6.3 (PSO-6.B): expect questions about global networks, offshoring/outsourcing, megacities, and how cities mediate global processes. Review the Topic 6.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz), the full Unit 6 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6), and practice 1,000+ problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography) to lock this down.
What's the difference between urban hierarchy and just ranking cities by size?
Ranking cities by size just lists populations (like rank–size rule or noting a primate city). Urban hierarchy is broader: it orders cities by functional importance, not only people. At the top of the world’s urban hierarchy are global (world) cities—New York, London, Tokyo—because they concentrate global financial markets, transnational corporations, advanced services, and global networks (EK PSO-6.B.1). Lower levels include regional service centers, specialized industrial cities, and small towns that serve local needs. So two cities with similar populations can sit at different hierarchical levels if one hosts major finance, HQs, and global linkages while the other is mostly local. For AP studying, know that “world cities” drive globalization and are defined by functions and linkages, not just size (see Topic 6.3 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz). For more practice, try the AP question bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Can someone explain how cities mediate global processes in simple terms?
Cities mediate global processes by acting as concentrated hubs where money, people, information, and goods move and connect. Global (or world) cities like New York, London, and Tokyo host global financial markets, transnational corporations, and HQs that coordinate production, investment, and decision-making across the world. They create agglomeration economies—clusters of firms and skilled workers—that speed innovation and outsourcing/offshoring decisions. Cities also link global supply chains through ports, airports, and logistics networks, and they shape migration and diaspora communities that spread culture, remittances, and ideas. In AP terms, this is EK PSO-6.B.1 and PSO-6.B.2: cities sit at the top of the urban hierarchy and connect the world through networks and linkages. For more focused review, check the Topic 6.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
I'm confused about how cities embody globalization - what does that even mean?
When the CED says “cities embody globalization,” it means cities are the places where global economic, social, and cultural processes actually happen and connect. Global (or world) cities like New York, London, and Tokyo sit at the top of the urban hierarchy and drive global financial markets, house headquarters of transnational corporations, and create agglomeration economies (lots of firms and skilled workers clustered together). Cities also link the world through global networks and supply chains (ports, airports, finance, and tech), attract international migration and diaspora communities, and host outsourced or offshored jobs. Because of those linkages, local changes in a city can ripple worldwide—which is what the AP CED expects you to explain (EK PSO-6.B.1 and PSO-6.B.2). If you want a focused review, check the Topic 6.3 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz) and practice more with their AP questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What are some examples of world cities and why are they considered world cities?
World (or global) cities are major nodes that drive globalization—think New York City, London, and Tokyo. They host global financial markets, headquarters of transnational corporations, major stock exchanges, and command centers for global supply chains. Because of agglomeration economies, these cities concentrate highly skilled workers, advanced services (finance, law, media), and transport hubs (airports, ports) that connect other places. They shape global culture and migration too—big diaspora communities and international migration flows link them worldwide. On the AP exam, this matches EK PSO-6.B.1 and .2: world cities sit at the top of the urban hierarchy and mediate global processes through networks and linkages. Want more examples and exam-aligned review? Check the Topic 6.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do networks and linkages between cities actually work in practice?
Think of city networks as flows—money, goods, people, information—moving along real routes and invisible ties. World cities (New York, London, Tokyo) sit at the top of the urban hierarchy and coordinate global finance, corporate HQs, and high-value services; they link by stock markets, banks, and transnational corporations. Other cities plug in through ports, airports, tech hubs, and supply-chain nodes: manufacturers in one place, designers in another, and finance elsewhere (offshoring/outsourcing). Diaspora communities and migration create social ties that help firms and workers move across cities. Agglomeration economies make firms cluster (shared labor pools, suppliers), while edge cities form near highways/airports to capture business outside downtowns. On the AP exam, expect questions about how networks mediate globalization (EK PSO-6.B.1–6.B.2); Unit 6 is tested at 12–17% of the MC section. For a focused review, check the Topic 6.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why do world cities function at the top of urban hierarchy instead of just being the biggest cities?
World cities sit at the top of the urban hierarchy because of function, not just size. They’re command-and-control centers for global finance, headquarters for transnational corporations, and hubs for high-level services (legal, advertising, tech). Agglomeration economies concentrate specialized labor, knowledge, and institutions, which creates global linkages and networks—so cities like New York, London, and Tokyo drive globalization (EK PSO-6.B.1, EK PSO-6.B.2). Being “world” means shaping flows (capital, information, people) across global supply chains and diasporas, not merely having a big population. For the AP exam, expect questions linking world-city roles to globalization processes in Topic 6.3; Unit 6 counts for 12–17% of MCs (see the CED). For a focused review, check the Topic 6.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What caused certain cities to become more globally connected than others?
Cities become more globally connected when they concentrate the economic, political, and cultural functions that drive globalization. World cities like New York, London, and Tokyo host global financial markets, headquarters of transnational corporations, major ports and airports, and specialized services (legal, tech, media). Those agglomeration economies—firms and skilled workers clustering together—boost productivity and attract investment, migrants, and diaspora networks, strengthening global linkages. Good physical geography (coasts, river access), colonial history, and infrastructure (air/sea/ICT hubs) also matter because they lower transport and communication costs. Processes like offshoring/outsourcing and global supply chains tie these cities into international networks, while migration brings human capital. For AP-style responses, name examples and connect causes to concepts (global networks, agglomeration economies, transnational corporations). For a focused review, see the Topic 6.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz) and Unit 6 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6). Practice more with 1000+ problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How has globalization changed the way cities grow and develop?
Globalization has reshaped how cities grow by linking them into worldwide networks and concentrating high-value services in a few "global cities" (New York, London, Tokyo) that drive finance, trade, and decision-making. Transnational corporations, global supply chains, offshoring, and outsourcing push firms to cluster (agglomeration economies) in places with skilled labor and infrastructure, creating megacities and edge cities around airports and suburbs. Cities now mediate flows of capital, information, goods, and people: international migration and diaspora communities change demographics and create transnational cultural ties. That causes uneven development—world cities grow wealthy while many secondary cities and peripheral neighborhoods lag—leading to sprawl, gentrification, and informal settlements in rapidly urbanizing countries. For the AP exam, be ready to explain examples and link terms like global networks, megacities, edge cities, and agglomeration economies (Unit 6 is 12–17% of the exam). Review Topic 6.3 in the Fiveable study guide for concise examples and practice (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz).
What are the effects of cities being connected through global networks?
When cities link through global networks, they change how goods, people, money, ideas, and power flow. Economically, world cities (e.g., New York, London, Tokyo) concentrate global financial markets, transnational corporations, and agglomeration economies—so high-value services cluster and drive globalization. Spatially, networks produce megacities, edge cities, and global supply-chain hubs while encouraging offshoring/outsourcing and uneven development between core cities and their peripheries. Socially and culturally, networks boost international migration and diaspora communities, spreading cultural diffusion and hybrid identities. Politically and environmentally, connected cities face transnational governance needs (regulation, security) and shared problems like air pollution and congestion. On the AP exam you might be asked to explain or evaluate these processes (see EK PSO-6.B.1–6.B.2). For a focused review, check the Topic 6.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do I write an essay about the relationship between cities and globalization?
Start with a clear thesis that answers the prompt: e.g., “Globalization reshapes cities by concentrating global finance, corporate HQs, and networks in world cities while connecting other cities through supply chains, migration, and diasporas.” Then organize body paragraphs: define global cities (NYC, London, Tokyo) and explain EK PSO-6.B.1—their role in global financial markets, transnational corporations, and agglomeration economies with one concrete example. Next paragraph: describe networks and linkages (global networks, supply chains, offshoring/outsourcing, migration, diaspora communities) to show EK PSO-6.B.2. Use scales (local to global) and place-based evidence (megacities, edge cities). Address impacts: uneven development, cultural diffusion, infrastructure strain. Conclude by linking back to the thesis and suggesting policy responses (planning, transit, regional development). For AP FRQs, be explicit, use CED terms, and give 1–2 specific examples or data points. Review the Topic 6.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz), the Unit 6 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6), and practice dozens of FRQ-style prompts (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography) to prep.
Compare how world cities drive globalization versus how smaller cities participate in it
World (global) cities—like New York, London, and Tokyo—sit at the top of the urban hierarchy and actively drive globalization by hosting global financial markets, transnational corporation HQs, major media, and dense agglomeration economies that attract skilled labor and capital. They create and control global networks, set trends, and coordinate global supply chains. Smaller cities participate differently: they plug into those networks by specializing (manufacturing, logistics, tech hubs), hosting branch offices, or serving as nodes in offshoring/outsourcing chains and diaspora networks. World cities shape rules and flows; smaller cities adapt to and benefit from those flows, often focusing on production, regional services, or niche industries. For AP exam prep, be ready to compare functions, provide examples (NYC/London/Tokyo vs. secondary cities), and use terms like agglomeration economies, transnational corporations, and global networks (see the Topic 6.3 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz). For more review and practice, check the unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
I missed class - what's the main connection between urbanization and globalization?
Short answer: urbanization and globalization feed each other. Global cities (New York, London, Tokyo) sit at the top of the urban hierarchy and drive global financial markets, transnational corporations, and global supply chains. As cities grow (urbanization), they create agglomeration economies—lots of firms, skilled workers, and services close together—which attract investment, migration, and diaspora communities. Those same global networks (trade, offshoring/outsourcing, finance, transport, and communications) link cities world-wide and spread cultural, economic, and political changes. On the AP exam you should be able to name examples (global cities, megacities, edge cities), describe linkages, and explain how cities mediate globalization (CED PSO-6.B; Topic 6.3). For a quick review, see the Topic 6.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/cities-globalization/study-guide/R8Dz2BPSfMV0U4ExFNFz), the Unit 6 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).