Introduction
Urbanization, or the process of increasing the proportion of a population living in urban areas, can bring about significant changes in a city or region. These changes can have both positive and negative impacts on the social, economic, and environmental well-being of a community. Some of the challenges that may arise in the context of urban change include:
- Housing affordability: Rapid urbanization can lead to rising housing prices, which can make it difficult for low- and middle-income families to afford a place to live.
- Inequality: Urbanization can also contribute to income inequality, as the wealthy may benefit more from the economic opportunities and amenities associated with urban living, while the poor may struggle to access affordable housing and other necessities.
- Traffic congestion: Urbanization can also lead to increased traffic congestion, which can have negative impacts on air quality and quality of life.
- Environmental degradation: Urbanization can also put pressure on natural resources and contribute to environmental degradation, such as through the development of green spaces and the increase in waste generation.
To address these challenges, governments and community organizations may implement policies and programs designed to promote sustainable urban development, including through the provision of affordable housing, the promotion of public transportation, and the protection of natural resources.
Challenges
| Modern Challenge | Characteristics |
|---|---|
| Gentrification | Gentrification is a process in which a neighborhood undergoes a change in population and an increase in property values, often resulting in the displacement of low-income residents and small businesses. This process is typically driven by the influx of more affluent individuals or businesses into an area, which can lead to the renovation of older housing and commercial buildings, the construction of new developments, and an increase in property values. While gentrification can bring new investment and economic growth to a neighborhood, it can also have negative consequences for the residents who are displaced and for the social and cultural fabric of the community. Some of the potential negative effects of gentrification include the loss of affordable housing, the displacement of long-time residents, and the alteration or loss of cultural or historic landmarks. |
| Redlining | Redlining is a discriminatory practice in which financial institutions and other organizations deny or limit financial services, insurance, or other resources to residents of certain areas, typically because those areas are predominantly inhabited by racial or ethnic minorities. This practice was made illegal in the United States through the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which prohibits discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, and other factors. However, the effects of redlining continue to be felt today, as neighborhoods that were previously redlined often have lower levels of investment and fewer resources than neighborhoods that were not. |
| Blockbusting | Blockbusting is a practice in which real estate agents or developers try to encourage homeowners to sell their properties by intentionally creating a sense of fear or panic about the racial or ethnic composition of a neighborhood. This can be done through tactics such as spreading rumors that people of a certain race or ethnicity are moving into the area, or that property values will decline if certain groups of people move in. Blockbusting was often used in conjunction with redlining, as real estate agents and developers would often target neighborhoods that had been redlined and then try to convince homeowners to sell their properties at a discounted price. The effects of blockbusting can be significant and long-lasting, as it can lead to the displacement of families and communities and contribute to segregation and inequality. |
| White Flight | White flight refers to the phenomenon of white people moving out of urban neighborhoods that are becoming racially or ethnically diverse, often to suburban areas. This term is often used to describe the mass migration of white people from cities to suburbs in the United States that occurred during the mid-20th century. White flight was often driven by concerns about declining property values, changes in the social and economic makeup of the neighborhood, and a desire to live in areas with fewer people of color. The term can also be used more broadly to describe similar patterns of racial or ethnic segregation in other countries. The effects of white flight can be significant and long-lasting, as it can contribute to segregation, inequality, and a lack of diversity in urban and suburban areas. |
| Residential Segregation | Residential segregation refers to the physical separation of different racial and ethnic groups in the housing market, resulting in separate and unequal neighborhoods. This can occur as a result of intentional policies, such as redlining, or more subtle factors, such as discrimination in the housing market or the fact that people often prefer to live near others who are similar to them. Residential segregation can have a number of negative consequences, including unequal access to resources and opportunities, lower property values in neighborhoods that are predominantly inhabited by people of color, and a lack of diversity in communities. Some of the factors that contribute to residential segregation include discrimination, housing policies, and economic inequality. |
| Public Housing | Public housing is a type of housing assistance provided by the government to low-income individuals and families. It is typically provided in the form of rental apartments or houses that are owned and managed by a government agency. Public housing is intended to provide safe and affordable housing for people who may not be able to afford market-rate rents. Eligibility for public housing is typically based on income, and the amount of rent that residents are required to pay is generally based on a percentage of their income. Public housing is an important resource for many people who need assistance with housing, and it can play a key role in helping people to achieve long-term stability and independence. |
| Squatter Settlements | Squatter settlements, also known as informal settlements or shantytowns, are areas where people live in improvised housing structures, often without legal ownership or permission to occupy the land. Squatter settlements can be found in many cities around the world, and they are often home to marginalized and low-income communities. People living in squatter settlements may lack access to basic services such as clean water, sanitation, and electricity, and they may be at risk of eviction or other forms of displacement. Squatter settlements can be a result of rapid urbanization, a lack of affordable housing, and other economic and social factors. Governments and community organizations may work to address the challenges faced by residents of squatter settlements, including through initiatives to improve living conditions, provide access to services, and formalize land tenure. |
Problems
There are social and economic problems linked with the growth and decline of urban communities. These include housing and insurance unfairness, housing affordability, access to food stores and other public services, disamenity zones, and gentrification.
Disamenity Zones
Disamenity zones are areas that are characterized by a lack of desirable amenities or features. These may include areas with high levels of pollution, traffic congestion, crime, or poverty, or areas that are otherwise considered undesirable to live in. Disamenity zones can have negative impacts on the health, well-being, and quality of life of the people who live in them, and they may be a source of social and economic inequality. Governments and community organizations may work to address the challenges faced by people living in disamenity zones, including through initiatives to improve public safety, reduce pollution, and provide access to amenities and services.
In the past in the USA, there was racial discrimination by de jure or de facto means. This was further facilitated through segregated city development known as residential segregation.
De Jure or De Facto
De jure and de facto are Latin terms that are used to distinguish between things that are based on law or official rules (de jure) and those that exist in fact, regardless of whether they are legally or formally recognized (de facto).
De jure segregation refers to segregation that is based on laws or official policies. For example, segregation of public schools based on race was de jure segregation in the United States prior to the 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which declared such segregation to be unconstitutional.
De facto segregation, on the other hand, refers to segregation that arises from social, economic, or cultural factors, rather than from explicit laws or policies. De facto segregation may be the result of residential patterns, job market dynamics, or other factors that lead to the separation of different groups within a population.
Both de jure and de facto segregation can have negative impacts on the opportunities and well-being of disadvantaged groups, and they may contribute to social and economic inequality. Governments and community organizations may work to address segregation and promote greater integration and inclusivity through various means, such as fair housing policies, targeted economic development initiatives, and education reform.
Blockbusting is a racially discriminatory practice of pressuring a party to sell a home to families of a minority race or ethnic background, then using fear tactics to cause others in the neighborhood to sell their homes at low prices.
Central cities were dismissed within the 1980s, and they began to regrow in popularity within the 1990s and now are the destination spot for people to be, culturally and entertainment‐wise. However, housing prices have risen and most of the desirable areas are already bought or too expensive to be acquired. So people began looking elsewhere for affordable housing. Gentrification is the process of rehabilitating old structures in deteriorated areas rather than demolishing old structures to make new ones. Gentrification changes formerly low‐income areas to middle‐ and high‐income groups. It gives an economic boost to the area, but it also raises property values which force the poorer, often minority groups that settled there during the redlining and blockbusting times mentioned above. Gentrification creates tension between long‐time residents and newcomers. Sometimes, empty or abandoned areas are completely demolished to the ground. The picture below shows gentrification on the right and the original neighborhood on the left.
On the other hand, as cities decentralize by moving industry outward, people leave the cities likewise during a movement known as counter‐urbanization. Some move to suburbs, but some families decide to move to rural areas. Approximately one in six Americans live in a master‐planned community. Inside these master‐planned communities, one can find gated subsets where a fence or wall manned by a code or guard denies access except to some individuals. Over 9 million high‐income Americans board these kinds of communities. Troubled by inner‐city crime, people went to seek safety within their walled compounds. Gated communities were found around the world as well.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the main challenges cities face when populations move around?
When people move around inside and into cities, it creates lots of linked challenges. Housing problems are biggest: redlining, blockbusting, and rising unaffordability push low-income residents into squatter settlements or zones of abandonment and disamenity. Access to services (schools, transit, health care) becomes uneven, producing environmental injustice where poorer neighborhoods get worse air, water, and waste infrastructure. Population shifts can raise crime in unstable areas, spark gentrification and displacement, and lead to land-tenure conflicts. Politically, fragmented local and metropolitan governments make coordinated solutions hard. Responses include inclusionary zoning, local-food movements, and urban renewal, but those can also cause displacement if not managed. For AP exam focus, be ready to explain causes and effects (SPS-6.A) and evaluate policy responses (see Topic 6.10 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d). For extra practice, try problems here: https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography.
Why does housing discrimination like redlining still happen in cities today?
Redlining still happens because historical policies, economic incentives, and weak enforcement create persistent patterns of discrimination. Banks and insurers practiced denied loans and investment in minority neighborhoods; that disinvestment lowered property values, hurt credit, and made those areas less attractive for services—effects that can last generations (CED EK SPS-6.A.1). Today it continues through subtle forms: biased lending decisions, credit-scoring algorithms that reflect past inequality, exclusionary zoning, and private investors who avoid or exploit certain neighborhoods. Limited government coordination (functional fragmentation) and slow enforcement let these patterns persist. Responses covered in the unit—like inclusionary zoning or targeted public investment—try to reverse it (EK SPS-6.A.3, EK SPS-6.A.5). For AP study, link this to housing affordability, environmental injustice, and zones of abandonment in Topic 6.10 (see the topic study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography)).
What's the difference between blockbusting and redlining - I'm confused?
Redlining and blockbusting are related but different forms of housing discrimination. - Redlining: banks, insurers, or the government refuse or limit loans and investment in neighborhoods (often mapped by race). It’s systemic disinvestment that causes lower property values, poor housing quality, reduced access to services, and can create zones of abandonment (EK SPS-6.A.1). This shows up on the exam as a cause of uneven development and housing affordability problems. - Blockbusting: a real-estate tactic where agents stoke fear (telling white residents that racial change is coming) to make them sell quickly and cheaply; agents then resell those homes at higher prices to minority buyers. That accelerates “white flight,” rapid racial turnover, and neighborhood instability. Both increase segregation and urban decline but operate at different scales—redlining is institutional denial of capital; blockbusting is market manipulation by brokers. For quick review, see the Topic 6.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d). For broader unit review and lots of practice, check Unit 6 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6) and the practice bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do squatter settlements form and why are they growing so much?
Squatter settlements form when huge numbers of people move to cities faster than formal housing and services can be provided. Drivers: rapid urbanization and rural-to-urban migration (pulls like jobs, education), lack of affordable housing, weak land-tenure laws, and limited government capacity to expand infrastructure. New arrivals build informal homes on unused or risky land, creating settlements with insecure land tenure, poor sanitation, and limited services—exactly what EK SPS-6.A.2 describes. They’re growing because many cities in developing countries are becoming megacities (over 10 million people) while formal housing supply and finance can’t keep up; informality and the informal economy then absorb millions. For AP review, connect this to housing affordability, land-tenure conflicts, and disamenity zones (EK SPS-6.A.1–.2). Want more detail and practice? Check the Topic 6.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d), the Unit 6 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6), and tons of practice Qs (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What causes disamenity zones and zones of abandonment in urban areas?
Disamenity zones and zones of abandonment form when people, money, and services shift away from parts of a city. Causes include deindustrialization and job loss (so factories close), suburbanization/“white flight,” redlining and disinvestment, and housing affordability crises that push low-income residents into neglected areas. Environmental injustice (polluting industries sited there) and weak government services create disamenity zones—places controlled by gangs or informal actors with little public infrastructure. Zones of abandonment result from mortgage foreclosures, population loss, and lack of reinvestment—leading to vacant lots, boarded-up buildings, and declining tax bases. These processes link directly to EK SPS-6.A.1 (housing discrimination, access to services, environmental injustice). You might see this on MC or FRQ items about urban change in Unit 6. For review, check the Topic 6.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d), the Unit 6 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6), or practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why do some neighborhoods have worse access to services than others in the same city?
Some neighborhoods have worse access to services because of historical, economic, and political processes that shape where people live. Redlining and blockbusting pushed investment away from minority neighborhoods, creating long-term disinvestment and environmental injustice. Economic factors—lower incomes, housing affordability, and disamenity zones/zones of abandonment—mean businesses and transit won’t locate there, so you get “service deserts.” Fragmentation of government and zoning can leave neighborhoods without coordinated funding or public transit, worsening access. Recent gentrification can also push low-income residents farther from jobs and services (spatial mismatch). On the AP exam this fits EK SPS-6.A.1 and shows up in Unit 6 questions and FRQ prompts about urban challenges (see Free-Response Question 2 alignment). For a quick review, check the Topic 6.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d). Want practice Qs on this? Try the Unit 6 resources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6) and 1000+ practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Can someone explain what inclusionary zoning actually does to help cities?
Inclusionary zoning (IZ) is a local policy that forces or incentivizes developers to include affordable housing when they build new units. Practically, a city will require or offer benefits (like density bonuses or tax breaks) so a share of new housing—commonly a set percentage of units—must be priced below market rate for low- to moderate-income households. That helps cities by: increasing affordable supply in high-demand areas, slowing displacement tied to gentrification, and creating mixed-income neighborhoods that improve access to services and transit. Limits: IZ doesn’t solve overall housing shortages and can be weaker if housing markets are slow or rules are lax. For AP, link IZ to housing affordability, gentrification, and local policy responses in EK SPS-6.A. Read the Topic 6.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What's the difference between urban renewal and gentrification?
Urban renewal is a government- or agency-led effort to redevelop blighted or declining urban areas—think large-scale demolition, new public housing, highways, or parks meant to improve infrastructure and public safety. Gentrification is a market-driven process where higher-income residents move into lower-income neighborhoods, renovate housing, and change local businesses and culture. Both can improve physical conditions and tax bases (positive), but urban renewal can displace residents through clearance or poor planning (zones of abandonment if it fails), while gentrification raises housing costs and affordability problems, often pushing out longtime, lower-income residents. Both connect to CED concepts like housing affordability, disamenity zones, and environmental injustice (EK SPS-6.A.1, SPS-6.A.4). For AP exam prep, be ready to explain causes/effects and give examples of policies (inclusionary zoning or public housing) as responses. Review Topic 6.10 for concise examples and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d) and try more practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Does gentrification actually help or hurt neighborhoods - I keep getting mixed answers?
Short answer: both. Gentrification brings investment, better services, lower vacancy, and sometimes reduced crime—but it also raises housing costs, displaces lower-income residents, and can erase local culture (CED EK SPS-6.A.4 and EK SPS-6.A.1). Think of it as a trade-off: neighborhoods often gain improved infrastructure, new jobs, and cleaner streets, yet long-term residents can lose affordable housing and access to services they relied on. Policies matter—inclusionary zoning, rent stabilization, community land trusts, and targeted public housing can reduce displacement and make benefits more equitable (CED EK SPS-6.A.3). For AP review, be ready to explain both positive and negative consequences of urban renewal/gentrification and propose policy responses on the free-response (Unit 6 topic 6.10; study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d). For more practice, check unit resources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6) and 1000+ practice Qs (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How does environmental injustice work in cities and who gets affected most?
Environmental injustice in cities happens when environmental harms (pollution, toxic sites, poor sanitation, heat islands) are concentrated in neighborhoods with less political power. Causes include historical housing discrimination (redlining, blockbusting), cheap land/zoning that lets industries or highways sit next to homes, and underinvestment that creates disamenity zones or zones of abandonment (CED EK SPS-6.A.1). Effects: higher asthma, lead poisoning, heat-related illness, reduced access to parks and clean water, and fewer services. Those most affected are low-income residents, racial and ethnic minorities, recent immigrants, and renters—groups with limited political voice and capital. For AP prep, be ready to explain causes and effects (free-response) and link to policy responses like inclusionary zoning or environmental regulation (CED EK SPS-6.A.3). Review Topic 6.10 study guide for examples and practice (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d) and more unit review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6). Practice Qs: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why is it so hard for city governments to solve urban problems when there are so many different levels of government involved?
It’s hard because cities don’t act alone—authority and money are split across multiple levels (federal, state, county, city, neighborhood) and across many agencies. This “functional and geographic fragmentation of government” (CED EK SPS-6.A.5) creates overlapping jurisdictions, conflicting priorities, legal limits, and gaps in funding or data. Elected officials answer to different constituencies, so short-term political incentives can block long-term fixes (like affordable housing, transit, or pollution control). Coordination is costly and slow, and solutions often need regional scale (metropolitan fragmentation) even though responsibility stops at city limits. On the AP exam you’ll need to explain these scale and governance problems in free-response prompts (Unit 6 content, SPS-6.A). For more examples and solutions (inclusionary zoning, regional planning), see the Topic 6.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What are the positive and negative effects of urban renewal projects?
Urban renewal projects can improve cities but also cause problems. Positives: they replace blighted zones with new housing, parks, and transit, boost property values and tax revenue, reduce disamenity zones, and can fund infrastructure or mixed-use development that attracts jobs (helps economic challenges in EK SPS-6.A.4). Negatives: renewal often leads to displacement and reduced housing affordability, gentrification, loss of local culture, and sometimes environmental injustice when lower-income residents are pushed to peripheral areas (EK SPS-6.A.1, SPS-6.A.4). Policymakers may use inclusionary zoning or public housing to reduce harm. For AP exam prep, you should be able to explain these cause–effect tradeoffs and give examples on MCQs or FRQs (Unit 6 content). Review Topic 6.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do I write an essay about the causes and effects of urban population movement?
Start by planning a clear thesis: name the causes (push/pull, redlining, gentrification, squatter settlements, government fragmentation) and the major effects (housing affordability, disamenity zones/zones of abandonment, environmental injustice, access-to-services gaps). Organize body paragraphs: 1) Causes—rural-to-urban migration, economic change, discriminatory housing practices (redlining, blockbusting), and land-tenure conflicts; 2) Effects—rising crime, service gaps, squatter settlements, displacement from gentrification, and fragmented government responses; 3) Responses/solutions—inclusionary zoning, urban renewal trade-offs, local food movements. Use specific examples and CED terms (disamenity zones, land tenure, inclusionary zoning). For AP free-response, answer clearly and concisely, use evidence, and connect cause → effect → solution; FRQs are 7 points each and expect direct explanation and examples (3 FRQs total, 75 minutes). Review Topic 6.10 for wording and examples (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d), the whole unit (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6), and practice 1000+ questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
I don't understand how local food movements are supposed to help with urban challenges - can someone explain?
Local food movements help cities by addressing economic, social, and environmental problems named in the CED. They bring fresh food into food deserts (improving access and health), create local jobs and small-business opportunities (helping affordability), and build social capital through farmers’ markets and community gardens (reducing isolation and strengthening neighborhoods). Urban agriculture and community-supported agriculture (CSAs) cut “food miles,” lower emissions, and can reclaim disamenity zones or vacant lots. They’re also a tool for environmental justice when low-income areas get prioritized. On the AP exam you might be asked to explain these responses to urban challenges (EK SPS-6.A.3), so link local-food actions to specific problems like housing, access to services, or environmental injustice. For a quick review, see the Topic 6.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d). More unit review and practice problems are at (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6) and (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What happens when people can't afford housing in cities anymore and where do they go?
If people can’t afford housing in a city, they get pushed out in a few common ways—and each has real geographic effects. Some move to suburbs or exurbs where housing is cheaper (driving longer commutes → more sprawl). Others end up in informal or squatter settlements on a city’s periphery or in zones of abandonment/disamenity within the city (poor services, environmental injustice). Some become unhoused or rely on shelters/temporary housing. Gentrification and displacement often drive these changes, and practices like redlining or lack of affordable housing worsen them. Policy responses include inclusionary zoning, rent control, and affordable housing programs—but fragmented local governments make coordinated solutions hard. This is exactly what Topic 6.10 covers (see the study guide) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6/challenges-urban-changes/study-guide/sndQsKKtXtnNdW94sf5d). For extra practice on these concepts for the AP exam, check the unit review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-6) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).