The Aztec and Inca empires dominated Mesoamerica and South America before European contact. These complex societies built vast territories, developed advanced technologies, and created intricate social structures. Their rise and fall shaped the pre-Columbian Americas.

In North America, the Anasazi and Mississippian cultures flourished. These societies developed sophisticated architecture, agriculture, and art. Their achievements, including pueblos and earthen mounds, showcase the diversity and ingenuity of Native American civilizations.

The Aztec and Inca Empires

Rise and expansion of Aztec and Inca

• Aztec Empire (Mexica)
  • Originated in the Valley of Mexico, a fertile region surrounded by mountains and lakes
  • Founded Tenochtitlan on an island in Lake Texcoco in 1325 CE, which became their capital city and a major center of trade and power
  • Formed the Triple Alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan in 1428 CE, establishing a powerful military and political confederation
  • Expanded through military conquests and alliances, subjugating neighboring city-states and demanding tribute
  • Controlled a vast territory in Mesoamerica at its peak, stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico
• Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu)
  • Originated in the Cusco Valley of the Andes Mountains, a region with challenging terrain and diverse ecosystems
  • Pachacuti (1438-1471 CE) began the expansion of the empire, initiating a period of rapid growth and consolidation
  • Expanded through military conquests and diplomacy, incorporating neighboring kingdoms and ethnic groups
  • Incorporated diverse ethnic groups into the empire, allowing them to maintain their local traditions and leadership while under Inca rule
  • Controlled a vast territory along the western coast of South America at its peak, extending from modern-day Ecuador to central Chile

Aztec vs Inca: society and culture

• Social structures
  • Aztec
    • Hierarchical society with the emperor at the top, considered a divine ruler and descendant of the gods
    • Noble class, consisting of warriors, priests, and government officials, held significant power and privileges
    • Commoners, the majority of the population, were farmers, artisans, and merchants
    • Slaves, often captives from wars or individuals unable to pay debts, performed labor and could be sacrificed
    • Emphasis on military prowess and warrior culture, with successful warriors gaining prestige and social mobility
  • Inca
    • Hierarchical society with the Sapa Inca at the top, considered a divine ruler and descendant of the sun god Inti
    • Nobility, consisting of the Inca royal family, regional leaders, and high-ranking officials, held power and influence
    • Commoners, the majority of the population, were farmers, herders, and craftsmen
    • Yanacona (servants), a class of individuals who performed labor and services for the state and nobility
    • Ayllu system: extended family units with collective land ownership and shared labor responsibilities
• Religious practices
  • Aztec
    • Polytheistic religion with a pantheon of gods, each associated with specific aspects of nature and human life (Huitzilopochtli, Tlaloc, Quetzalcoatl)
    • Believed in the importance of human sacrifice to appease the gods and maintain cosmic balance
    • Practiced ritual bloodletting and heart extraction, often involving captives from wars or volunteers
    • Conducted elaborate religious ceremonies and festivals, such as the New Fire Ceremony and the Feast of Toxcatl
  • Inca
    • Polytheistic religion with a focus on nature deities, such as the sun, moon, earth, and mountains
    • Worshipped Inti (sun god) as the supreme deity and the ancestor of the Inca royal family
    • Practiced animal sacrifice, particularly llamas and guinea pigs, and made offerings of food, textiles, and precious objects to the gods
    • Conducted religious ceremonies and festivals, such as the Inti Raymi (Festival of the Sun) and the Capac Raymi (Festival of the Prince)
• Technological achievements
  • Aztec
    • Developed a sophisticated agricultural system with chinampas (floating gardens), which increased crop yields and supported a large population
    • Constructed impressive temples and pyramids, such as the Templo Mayor, using stone and lime mortar
    • Created accurate calendars, including the xiuhpohualli (solar calendar) and the tonalpohualli (sacred calendar), based on advanced astronomical knowledge
    • Developed a complex writing system using pictographs and ideograms, which recorded historical events, religious beliefs, and tribute records
  • Inca
    • Built an extensive road network (Qhapaq Ñan) for communication and transportation, spanning over 40,000 km and connecting the empire
    • Developed advanced agricultural techniques, such as terrace farming, to cultivate crops in the challenging Andean terrain
    • Constructed impressive stone architecture, such as Machu Picchu, using precise stonecutting and masonry techniques without mortar
    • Created a sophisticated record-keeping system using quipus, knotted strings that encoded numerical and narrative information

Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica

• Characterized by the development of complex city-states and empires before European contact
• Implemented tribute systems, where conquered territories paid goods and services to the ruling power
• Practiced various forms of polytheism, with elaborate pantheons of gods and goddesses
• Developed advanced agricultural techniques to support large populations in diverse environments

North American Societies

Anasazi and Mississippian developments

• Anasazi (Ancestral Puebloans)
  • Inhabited the Four Corners region of the American Southwest, encompassing parts of modern-day Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah
  • Developed advanced architectural techniques
    • Built multi-story stone structures called pueblos, which housed multiple families and served as centers of community life
    • Constructed kivas, circular underground chambers used for religious ceremonies, political meetings, and social gatherings
  • Created intricate pottery designs, featuring geometric patterns and stylized representations of animals and humans
  • Produced detailed rock art, including petroglyphs (carved) and pictographs (painted), depicting religious symbols, daily life, and historical events
  • Developed sophisticated irrigation systems, such as check dams and canals, to manage water resources in the arid environment
  • Practiced advanced agricultural techniques, such as dryland farming and the cultivation of maize, beans, and squash
• Mississippian culture
  • Flourished in the Mississippi River Valley and the southeastern United States, encompassing parts of modern-day Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, and neighboring states
  • Built large earthen mounds for religious and political purposes, serving as platforms for temples, elite residences, and public gatherings
    • Cahokia, the largest Mississippian settlement, featured numerous mounds and was a major center of trade and cultural exchange
    • Monks Mound, the largest earthen structure in North America, stood at the center of Cahokia and likely served as a platform for important ceremonies and elite residences
  • Developed a complex chiefdom society with social stratification, with chiefs and elite members at the top and commoners at the bottom
  • Engaged in long-distance trade networks, exchanging goods such as copper, shells, and other prestige items with neighboring regions
  • Created distinctive pottery styles, such as the Ramey Incised and the Powell Plain, featuring intricate designs and motifs
  • Produced carved stone figurines, often depicting humans and animals, which may have served religious or ceremonial purposes
  • Known as mound builders, they constructed large earthen structures for various purposes, including burial sites and ceremonial platforms