The Ottoman Empire rose from humble beginnings in Anatolia to become a major power. Its conquest of Constantinople in 1453 marked a turning point, establishing Ottoman dominance in the region and signaling the end of the Byzantine Empire.

After a period of instability following Bayezid I's defeat, the Ottomans regrouped under Mehmed I. His reign set the stage for future expansion, while his successors rebuilt Constantinople as a thriving capital and implemented policies to manage their diverse empire.

Rise and Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman conquest of Constantinople

• Ottoman Empire emerged as powerful state in Anatolia during late 13th and early 14th centuries founded by Osman I who expanded Ottoman control over neighboring Turkish tribes and Byzantine territories
• Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror) became Sultan in 1451 and set sights on capturing Constantinople, capital of Byzantine Empire and strategic city controlling trade routes between Europe and Asia
• In 1453, Mehmed II launched siege on Constantinople using advanced military technology including cannons to break through city's defenses Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI died in battle marking end of Byzantine Empire
• Fall of Constantinople established Ottoman Empire as major power allowing expansion into Balkans and eastern Mediterranean symbolizing rise of Islamic power and decline of Christian Byzantium

Power struggle after Bayezid I's defeat

• In 1402, Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I defeated and captured by Central Asian conqueror Timur at Battle of Ankara shattering Ottoman Empire leading to period of instability
• After Bayezid I's death in captivity, sons Mehmed Çelebi, Isa Çelebi, Musa Çelebi, and Süleyman Çelebi engaged in civil war for control of Ottoman throne
• Mehmed Çelebi (later Mehmed I) emerged victorious in 1413 after defeating brothers reunifying Ottoman Empire under his rule
• Mehmed I reorganized and strengthened Ottoman state reestablishing central authority, rebuilding army, and pursuing policy of reconciliation with neighboring powers to secure empire's borders
• Mehmed I's reign laid foundation for Ottoman Empire's future expansion and success with son Murad II further consolidating Ottoman power in Balkans and Anatolia

Rebuilding Constantinople as Ottoman capital

• After conquering Constantinople, Mehmed II rebuilt city as new capital of Ottoman Empire renaming it Istanbul and beginning major construction program building Topkapı Palace as primary residence of Ottoman sultans and converting Hagia Sophia (former Byzantine church) into mosque
• Mehmed II promoted cultural integration and religious tolerance encouraging migration of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian artisans and scholars to Istanbul and allowing Orthodox Church to maintain hierarchy and traditions
• Established millet system to govern non-Muslim religious communities (Greek Orthodox, Armenian, Jewish) granting degree of autonomy in managing religious, legal, and educational matters in exchange for special taxes and acceptance of Ottoman authority
• Millet system maintained stability and loyalty among diverse religious groups contributing to longevity and success of Ottoman Empire as multi-ethnic and multi-religious state allowing coexistence of different faith communities under Ottoman rule