The Sahel region of West Africa was a dynamic zone of cultural exchange and economic activity. From the 7th to 16th centuries, powerful kingdoms like Gao and Songhai rose and fell, shaping the political landscape and controlling vital trade routes.

Trans-Saharan trade was the lifeblood of the region, connecting West Africa to North Africa and beyond. This bustling commerce fostered the growth of cities, spread Islam, and fueled the rise of empires, while also sparking interactions between nomadic and settled groups.

States and Societies of the Sahel

Gao and Songhai kingdoms

• Gao kingdom (7th-11th centuries CE)
  • Emerged as a trading state along the Niger River, a strategic location for commerce
  • Benefited from trans-Saharan trade, exchanging goods such as gold, salt, and slaves
  • Reached its height under the Za dynasty, which consolidated power and expanded influence
• Songhai Empire (15th-16th centuries CE)
  • Rose to power after the decline of the Mali Empire, filling the power vacuum in the region
  • Sunni Ali (r. 1464-1492) expanded the empire through military conquests, incorporating new territories
  • Askia Muhammad I (r. 1493-1528) further expanded the empire and centralized its administration
    • Established a professional army and navy to defend the empire and control trade routes
    • Promoted Islamic learning and built mosques and schools, attracting scholars and fostering education
  • Decline in the late 16th century due to internal and external factors
    • Internal power struggles and revolts weakened the empire's stability and unity
    • Invasion by Moroccan forces in 1591 led to the empire's collapse, unable to withstand the military onslaught

Trans-Saharan trade routes

• Trans-Saharan trade connected West Africa with North Africa and the Mediterranean world
  • Exchanged gold, salt, slaves, ivory, and other goods, creating a vast network of economic interaction
  • Facilitated the spread of Islam and Islamic culture to West Africa, introducing new religious and cultural influences
• West African states and cities prospered from trade, experiencing economic growth and development
  • Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné emerged as major trading centers, becoming hubs of commerce and cultural exchange
  • Rulers controlled trade routes and taxed merchants, generating wealth and strengthening their power
• Trade stimulated the growth of states and empires, providing resources and incentives for political expansion
  • Ghana Empire (8th-11th centuries CE), one of the earliest and most powerful states in the region
  • Mali Empire (13th-15th centuries CE), known for its wealth and cultural achievements (Mansa Musa)
  • Songhai Empire (15th-16th centuries CE), the largest and most centralized state in the region
• Intellectual and cultural exchange flourished along trade routes
  • Spread of Islamic learning and scholarship, with the establishment of madrasas and libraries
  • Development of libraries and universities, such as Sankore Madrasah in Timbuktu, a renowned center of learning

Nomadic and settled interactions

• Sahel region as a transitional zone between the Sahara Desert and the savanna
  • Semi-arid region characterized by a mix of nomadic pastoralism and settled agriculture
  • Home to both nomadic pastoralists (Berbers, Tuaregs) and settled agricultural communities (Hausa, Fulani)
• Symbiotic relationships between nomads and settled groups, based on economic interdependence
  • Nomads provided livestock products (meat, milk, hides) and transportation services (caravans)
  • Settled communities supplied agricultural products (grains, vegetables) and manufactured goods (textiles, tools)
• Conflicts over resources and control of trade routes, leading to political and military tensions
  • Competition for water, pasture, and trade, with nomads and settled groups vying for control
  • Raids and tribute payments, as nomads sometimes extracted resources from settled communities
• Cultural and linguistic exchanges, fostering the development of shared identities and practices
  • Adoption of Islam by both nomadic and settled groups, creating a common religious bond
  • Development of Fulani and Hausa languages as lingua francas, facilitating communication and trade
• Political dynamics shaped by the interactions between nomadic and settled groups
  • Nomadic groups sometimes established states or conquered settled regions, asserting their power
    • Almoravid dynasty (11th-12th centuries CE) founded by Berber nomads, who conquered parts of the Sahel and North Africa
    • Fulani jihads in the 18th and 19th centuries led to the creation of Islamic states (Sokoto Caliphate), ruled by Fulani leaders