European powers sought colonies for resources, markets, and global influence in the late 19th century. They used military might, divide-and-rule tactics, and infrastructure to conquer territories, disrupting indigenous societies and exploiting local labor and resources.

As European empires expanded, new powers like Japan and the US emerged as colonial competitors. Germany also joined the race for colonies, leading to increased tensions and rivalries that would contribute to the outbreak of World War I.

Colonial Competition and Expansion

Colonial Territories

• Industrialized European powers sought new colonies for:
  • Economic resources
    • Raw materials (rubber, oil, minerals) to fuel industries
    • New markets for manufactured goods (textiles, machinery)
  • Global influence
    • Strategic territories for naval bases and coaling stations (Suez Canal, Singapore)
    • Prestige and power projection to demonstrate national strength
  • Nationalist agendas
    • Colonies as a source of national pride and glory
    • Desire to match or surpass rival nations' colonial empires (Britain, France)

Imperial Conquest

• Strategies of imperial conquest
  • Military force and superior weaponry (machine guns, artillery)
  • Divide and rule tactics exploiting local rivalries and ethnic divisions
  • Establishment of colonial administrations and infrastructure (railroads, ports)
• Consequences for indigenous populations
  • Loss of political sovereignty and self-determination under foreign rule
  • Exploitation of labor and resources
    • Forced labor systems (corvée in French Indochina, indentured servitude in British colonies)
    • Expropriation of land for plantations (rubber in Congo) and mines (gold and diamonds in South Africa)
  • Disruption of traditional societies and economies oriented towards subsistence agriculture
  • Imposition of European languages, religions (Christianity), and cultural norms
• Environmental consequences
  • Deforestation and habitat destruction for cash crop plantations (palm oil in Indonesia)
  • Overhunting of wildlife for ivory trade and sport (elephants, rhinos)
  • Introduction of non-native species disrupting local ecosystems (rabbits in Australia)

Challenges to European Empires

Rising Powers

• Japan
  • Meiji Restoration and modernization reforms to industrialize and build military strength
  • Victory in Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) establishing Japan as major power in East Asia
  • Annexation of Korea (1910) and expansion into China, clashing with Western interests
• United States
  • Spanish-American War (1898) and acquisition of overseas territories
    • Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam as stepping stones for trade and naval projection
  • Open Door Policy in China to protect American commercial interests and counter European spheres of influence
  • Construction of Panama Canal (1904-1914) to link Atlantic and Pacific, expand naval reach
• Germany
  • Late entry into colonial race under Kaiser Wilhelm II's "place in the sun" foreign policy
  • Acquisition of territories in Africa and Pacific to match British and French empires
    • Cameroon, Togo, German East Africa (Tanzania), German Southwest Africa (Namibia)
    • German New Guinea, Samoa in South Pacific for naval bases and raw materials
  • Naval buildup and rivalry with Britain leading to tensions and arms race before World War I