The 19th century saw major political shifts in Europe. Nationalism, liberalism, and conservatism shaped governments and inspired revolutions. These ideologies influenced the formation of political parties and the expansion of voting rights across the continent.

Italian and German unification were key events of the era. Leaders like Cavour and Bismarck used diplomacy and war to unite their nations. The Congress of Vienna aimed to restore balance after Napoleon, but its conservative policies eventually fueled nationalist movements.

Political Ideologies and Movements in 19th Century Europe

Nationalism, Liberalism, Conservatism

• Nationalism
  • Emphasized loyalty and devotion to one's nation or ethnic group based on shared language (French), culture (Italian Renaissance), history (German unification), and a desire for political autonomy
  • Promoted the idea of national self-determination and the creation of nation-states, inspiring movements like Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire
• Liberalism
  • Advocated for individual rights (freedom of speech), civil liberties (due process), and limited government intervention in personal and economic affairs
  • Supported free markets, private property rights, and the rule of law, as exemplified by Adam Smith's economic theories
  • Championed constitutional government and representative democracy, leading to the expansion of suffrage rights (voting) in many European countries
• Conservatism
  • Sought to preserve traditional social hierarchies (aristocracy), institutions (monarchy), and values (religion) in the face of revolutionary changes
  • Opposed rapid change and favored gradual reforms to maintain stability, as seen in the policies of Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich
  • Emphasized the importance of religion (Catholicism), monarchy (Bourbon Restoration in France), and the landed aristocracy (Junkers in Prussia) in society
• Impact on political landscape
  • These ideologies shaped political discourse and inspired revolutionary movements like the 1848 Revolutions across Europe
  • Led to the formation of political parties (Whigs and Tories in Britain) and the restructuring of governments (constitutional monarchies)
  • Influenced the creation of new constitutions (Belgian Constitution of 1831) and the expansion of suffrage rights (Reform Act of 1832 in Britain)

Italian and German Unification

• Italian unification (Risorgimento)
  • Driven by the desire to unite Italian states under a single national identity, overcoming regional differences and foreign domination
  • Key figures:
    1. Giuseppe Mazzini, founder of Young Italy, a revolutionary organization promoting Italian unity and republicanism
    2. Camillo Benso di Cavour, Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, who used diplomacy and military alliances to further unification
    3. Giuseppe Garibaldi, a revolutionary leader who led the Red Shirts in the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
  • Sardinia-Piedmont played a central role in the unification process, expanding its territory and influence through successful wars against Austria (1859) and the Papal States (1860)
  • Unification achieved through a combination of diplomacy (Plombières Agreement), military campaigns (Expedition of the Thousand), and popular support (plebiscites)
• German unification
  • Preceded by the Zollverein, a customs union that promoted economic integration and reduced trade barriers among German states
  • Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor, orchestrated the unification process through a series of calculated diplomatic maneuvers and wars
  • Bismarck employed "Realpolitik," a pragmatic approach to achieve Prussian dominance, often disregarding moral or ideological considerations
  • Key events:
    1. Schleswig-Holstein conflict (1864), in which Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and gained control over the disputed duchies
    2. Austro-Prussian War (1866), resulting in Prussia's victory and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs
    3. Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), which led to the defeat of France and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by Prussia
  • Culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871 under Kaiser Wilhelm I, with Bismarck as the Imperial Chancellor
• Challenges faced by newly unified nations
  • Integrating diverse regions with different political (absolutism vs. constitutionalism), economic (industrialized vs. agricultural), and cultural traditions (dialects and customs)
  • Establishing centralized governments and national institutions, such as a unified currency (Italian lira) and a federal structure (German Reichstag)
  • Addressing regional disparities and ensuring equal representation for all citizens, particularly in the face of lingering regional identities and loyalties

Congress of Vienna

• Goals of the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
  • Restore balance of power in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, preventing any single nation from dominating the continent
  • Prevent the spread of revolutionary ideals and maintain the status quo, protecting the interests of the ruling monarchies
  • Redraw political boundaries and redistribute territories among the victorious powers, rewarding allies and punishing France
• Key principles and outcomes
  • Legitimacy: Restoration of monarchies and pre-Napoleonic ruling families, such as the Bourbons in France and Spain
  • Compensation: Territorial gains for countries that fought against Napoleon, including Prussia (Rhineland), Russia (Poland), and Austria (northern Italy)
  • Containment: Creation of buffer states to prevent future French aggression, such as the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the German Confederation
  • Holy Alliance: An agreement among Russia, Austria, and Prussia to uphold Christian values and suppress revolutionary movements, reflecting the conservative nature of the post-Napoleonic order
• Long-term effects on European politics
  • Maintained relative peace and stability in Europe for several decades through the Concert of Europe, a system of regular diplomatic conferences and collective action
  • Suppressed nationalist and liberal movements, leading to a period of conservative dominance under the leadership of figures like Metternich and Tsar Alexander I
  • Sowed the seeds for future conflicts as nationalist aspirations and demands for political reform grew stronger, culminating in the Revolutions of 1848 and the unification of Italy and Germany