The 1920s saw a shift in American politics and society. Republican presidents Harding and Coolidge championed pro-business policies and limited government, leading to economic growth but also wealth concentration. This era of prosperity and consumerism reshaped the nation's economy and culture.

Mass media, including radio and movies, transformed American life. These new forms of communication created a shared national culture and fueled consumerism. However, cultural conflicts emerged over issues like Prohibition, women's changing roles, and immigration, reflecting tensions between tradition and modernity.

Republican Presidencies of the 1920s

Harding's presidency and scandals

• Harding's "Return to Normalcy" campaign promised a return to pre-World War I conditions emphasized limited government intervention and a pro-business approach (laissez-faire economics)
• Key policies during Harding's presidency included signing the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 which created the Bureau of the Budget and the General Accounting Office to manage federal spending, supported high protective tariffs such as the Fordney-McCumber Tariff of 1922 to shield American businesses from foreign competition, and appointed pro-business officials to key positions such as Andrew Mellon as Secretary of the Treasury
• Scandals during Harding's administration:
  • Teapot Dome Scandal: Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall leased Navy oil reserves to private companies in exchange for personal loans and gifts
  • Veterans' Bureau Scandal: Director Charles R. Forbes embezzled funds and accepted bribes in the construction of veterans' hospitals
• Harding died in office in 1923 leaving his vice president Calvin Coolidge to succeed him

Coolidge's Republican strategies

• Coolidge known as "Silent Cal" portrayed himself as a symbol of stability and integrity following Harding's scandals
• Continued Harding's pro-business policies and limited government intervention by supporting tax cuts particularly for the wealthy to stimulate economic growth (Mellon Plan) and reduced government spending to pay off a significant portion of the national debt
• Coolidge's hands-off approach to governance resonated with the public who were tired of the progressive reforms and government activism of the previous decades
• Successfully mediated labor disputes such as the 1924 Boston Police Strike which bolstered his reputation as a strong leader
• Easily won the 1924 presidential election benefiting from a divided Democratic Party and a strong economy

Impact of 1920s pro-business policies

• Economic growth and prosperity saw Gross National Product (GNP) increase by 40% between 1922 and 1929, unemployment remained low averaging around 3.7% throughout the decade, and wages increased improving the standard of living for many Americans
• Concentration of wealth and income inequality resulted in the top 1% of the population owning 40% of the nation's wealth by 1929 while lower-income groups did not benefit as much from the economic boom
• Expansion of consumer culture and credit increased availability of consumer goods such as automobiles and household appliances with installment buying and credit becoming more common allowing people to purchase goods they could not afford outright
• Speculative investing and stock market bubble fueled by low interest rates and easy credit encouraged speculative investing in the stock market while lack of regulation and excessive optimism contributed to the formation of a stock market bubble which eventually burst in October 1929 leading to the Great Depression
• Limited government oversight and regulation allowed for minimal government intervention in business affairs enabling the growth of monopolies and trusts while lack of regulations on banking and investing contributed to the instability that led to the Great Depression

Republican Party dominance and political landscape

• The Republican Party maintained control of the presidency throughout the 1920s, promoting policies of limited government and business-friendly initiatives
• Prosperity became a hallmark of Republican leadership, with the party taking credit for the economic boom of the decade
• Isolationism in foreign policy gained popularity, with the U.S. rejecting membership in the League of Nations and focusing on domestic affairs
• The cultural divide between urban and rural America intensified, with Republicans generally appealing to more traditional, rural values

Social and Cultural Changes in the 1920s

Factors leading to consumerism and mass culture

• Increased productivity and technological advancements lowered the cost of consumer goods through assembly line production, standardization, electrification of homes, and introduction of labor-saving appliances
• Rising wages and disposable income grew by 22% between 1923 and 1929 allowing more Americans to participate in the consumer economy
• Expansion of credit and installment buying resulted in 60% of automobiles and 80% of radios being purchased on credit by 1929 enabling consumers to buy goods they could not afford outright
• Advertising and mass media promoted new products and fueled consumer desire through radio, print advertising, and mass-circulation magazines such as Time and Reader's Digest which emerged to shape public opinion
• Urbanization and the growth of leisure activities provided more Americans access to a wider variety of goods and services in cities while the rise of leisure activities such as movies and spectator sports created new markets for consumer spending

Impact of mass media

• Radio:
  1. By 1929, 40% of American households owned a radio
  2. Radio programming including news, entertainment, and advertising helped create a shared national culture
  3. Political figures such as President Roosevelt used radio to communicate directly with the public
• Movies:
  1. Weekly movie attendance reached 90 million by the end of the 1920s
  2. Hollywood studios such as MGM and Paramount dominated the film industry and created a star system
  3. Movies influenced fashion, language, social norms, and provided a form of escapism for Americans
• Standardization of culture occurred as mass media helped create a more homogeneous national culture by exposing Americans to the same information and entertainment leading to a decline in regional differences and local cultures
• Consumerism and advertising turned mass media particularly radio and magazines into powerful tools for advertisers to reach a wide audience and encourage Americans to buy new products and participate in the consumer economy
• Censorship and moral concerns led to the adoption of the Hays Code in 1930 which established guidelines for the content of motion pictures to address concerns about the influence of movies on public morals while radio programming faced similar scrutiny with some groups advocating for greater regulation of content

1920s cultural conflicts

• Prohibition (18th Amendment and Volstead Act) banned the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages leading to the growth of organized crime, speakeasies, and bootlegging while highlighting the cultural divide between urban and rural Americans as well as between immigrants and native-born citizens
• Scopes Trial (1925) was a high-profile legal case challenging the teaching of evolution in public schools representing the conflict between modernism and traditionalism as well as the role of religion in public life and although the teacher John Scopes was convicted, the trial sparked a national debate about science, religion, and education
• Changing role of women:
  • 19th Amendment (1920) granted women the right to vote
  • "Flapper" culture challenged traditional gender norms with women embracing shorter hairstyles, shorter skirts, and more independent lifestyles
  • More women entered the workforce particularly in clerical and service jobs
  • Double standard persisted with women still facing discrimination and limited opportunities compared to men
• Nativism and immigration restrictions reflected fears of cultural and economic competition from immigrants particularly those from Southern and Eastern Europe through the Emergency Quota Act (1921) and National Origins Act (1924) which limited immigration based on national origins while the Ku Klux Klan reemerged in the 1920s promoting nativism, white supremacy, and anti-Catholicism
• Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City that celebrated African American art, literature, music, and intellectual life challenging stereotypes and promoting racial pride while also highlighting the ongoing struggle for civil rights and equality
• The rise of modernism in art and literature challenged traditional values and artistic conventions, often clashing with more conservative cultural elements