The Spanish-American War marked a turning point in US history. It propelled America onto the world stage as a major power, shifting from isolationism to global engagement. The conflict's causes, including support for Cuban independence and yellow journalism, led to decisive American victories.

The war's aftermath sparked debates on American imperialism. Supporters saw economic opportunities and a civilizing mission, while critics argued it contradicted American values. The conflict's impact on US global power was significant, with new territories acquired and increased influence in the Caribbean and Latin America.

The Spanish-American War

Causes and events of Spanish-American War

• Causes of the war
  • American support for Cuba's independence from Spain driven by sympathy for Cuban rebels and economic interests in the island
  • Yellow journalism and sensationalized reporting on Spanish atrocities in Cuba by newspapers like Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal
  • Sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor in February 1898, which was blamed on Spain despite inconclusive evidence
• Major events of the war
  • US declaration of war on Spain in April 1898 following the sinking of the USS Maine and failure of diplomatic efforts
  • Battle of Manila Bay in the Philippines in May 1898
    • Commodore George Dewey's decisive victory over the Spanish fleet, destroying all Spanish ships without a single American loss
  • Battles in Cuba
    • Battle of Las Guasimas in June 1898, the first land engagement of the war
    • Battle of San Juan Hill in July 1898, a key victory for American forces
      • Involvement of the Rough Riders, a volunteer cavalry regiment led by Theodore Roosevelt, which gained fame for its charge up Kettle Hill
  • Surrender of Spanish forces in Santiago, Cuba in July 1898 after the city was besieged by American troops
  • US invasion and capture of Puerto Rico in July-August 1898, facing little Spanish resistance
• Treaty of Paris in December 1898
  • Spain relinquished control of Cuba, which became an independent nation under US protection
  • Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the US as territories
  • US paid Spain $20 million for the Philippines, which was seen as compensation for improvements made during Spanish rule

Perspectives on American imperialism

• Support for imperialism
  • Belief in Manifest Destiny, the idea that the US had a divine right and duty to expand its influence across the continent and beyond
  • Economic opportunities in newly acquired territories, such as sugar plantations in Cuba and naval bases in the Philippines
  • Strategic importance of overseas possessions for protecting American interests, projecting naval power, and securing trade routes
  • "White Man's Burden", a paternalistic view that it was the duty of white Americans to civilize and Christianize other peoples seen as backward or uncivilized
• Opposition to imperialism
  • Anti-Imperialist League formed in 1898 to oppose annexation of the Philippines and other territories
    • Members included prominent figures like writer Mark Twain, industrialist Andrew Carnegie, and former president Grover Cleveland
  • Belief that imperialism contradicted American values of self-governance, democracy, and the consent of the governed
  • Concerns about the cost of maintaining overseas territories and the potential for entangling the US in foreign conflicts
  • Fear of involving the US in the suppression of independence movements, as in the case of the Philippine-American War

Impact on America's global power

• Acquisition of overseas territories as a result of the Spanish-American War
  • Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines became unincorporated territories under US control
  • Establishment of a protectorate over Cuba through the Platt Amendment, giving the US the right to intervene in Cuban affairs
• Increased American influence in the Caribbean and Latin America
  • Assertion of the US's right to intervene in the region to maintain stability and protect its interests, known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
  • Construction of the Panama Canal from 1904 to 1914, a major engineering feat that enhanced US naval power and trade by connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans
• Growth of the US Navy in the wake of the Spanish-American War
  • Increased funding and expansion of the navy to protect American overseas interests and project power globally
  • Great White Fleet's world tour from 1907 to 1909, a display of American naval might that visited 20 ports on six continents
• Shift in US foreign policy towards greater global engagement
  • Move away from isolationism and towards a more active role in international affairs, marking the US's emergence as a world power
  • Increased involvement in international politics and diplomacy, such as mediating the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 and convening the Portsmouth Peace Conference

American Imperialism and Its Consequences

Perspectives on American imperialism

• Debates over the annexation of the Philippines following the Spanish-American War
  • Imperialists argued for the economic and strategic benefits of controlling the islands, such as access to markets and resources in Asia
  • Anti-imperialists opposed annexation on moral and constitutional grounds, arguing that it violated American principles and would lead to entanglement in foreign conflicts
• Impact of the Spanish-American War on domestic politics
  • Election of 1900 largely centered on the issue of imperialism and the US's role in the world
    • William McKinley's victory over William Jennings Bryan seen as an endorsement of expansionist policies and a mandate for Republican leadership
  • Emergence of the US as a two-ocean power with interests and territories in both the Atlantic and Pacific, requiring a larger navy and more active foreign policy

Impact on America's global power

• US involvement in the Philippine-American War from 1899 to 1902
  • Suppression of the Filipino independence movement led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who had been an ally against Spain but opposed American annexation
  • Controversial use of tactics such as the "water cure" (a form of waterboarding) and reconcentration camps, which were criticized as inhumane and un-American
• Establishment of US colonial rule in the Philippines following the war
  • Appointment of William Howard Taft as the first civilian governor-general of the islands in 1901
  • Implementation of political, economic, and educational reforms aimed at modernizing and Americanizing Filipino society, but also serving US interests
• Impact of the Spanish-American War on US foreign relations
  • Strained relations with other imperial powers, particularly Germany and Japan, which also had interests in the Pacific and saw the US as a rival
  • US participation in the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900, sending troops to protect American citizens and help put down the anti-foreign uprising
  • Assertion of the Open Door Policy in 1899 to protect American commercial interests in China and ensure equal trade opportunities for all nations (spheres of influence)
• Long-term consequences of American imperialism in the early 20th century
  • Ongoing debate over the US's role as a global power and its responsibilities towards other nations, particularly in the context of decolonization after World War II
  • Lasting impact of US involvement in the Philippines on Filipino society, politics, and identity, as well as the relationship between the two countries
  • Precedent set for future US interventions in Latin America and beyond, often justified by the Roosevelt Corollary and the need to protect American interests abroad

US Foreign Policy Approaches in the Early 20th Century

• Gunboat diplomacy: The use or threat of limited naval force to secure advantage in international affairs, often employed by the US in Latin America and the Caribbean
• Dollar Diplomacy: Foreign policy initiative under President William Howard Taft that sought to use American economic power to further US interests abroad, particularly in Latin America and East Asia
• Colonial administration: The governance and management of overseas territories acquired by the US, including the development of infrastructure, education systems, and local government structures
  • Challenges in balancing American interests with local autonomy and self-governance aspirations in territories like the Philippines and Puerto Rico