Jimmy Carter's presidency faced significant domestic challenges, particularly the energy crisis. He implemented policies to promote conservation and alternative energy sources, establishing the Department of Energy and passing the National Energy Act.

Carter's domestic agenda also included environmental protection and education reform. However, his efforts were overshadowed by economic struggles and the ongoing energy crisis, which led to long gas lines and public frustration.

Carter's Domestic Policies

Carter's domestic policy initiatives

• Implemented the National Energy Act (1978) encouraged energy conservation and development of renewable energy sources including the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) promoting energy efficiency and alternative energy
• Established the Department of Energy (1977) as a separate cabinet-level agency to improve coordination of energy policies and programs
• Passed the Department of Education Organization Act (1979) creating the Department of Education aimed at improving quality and accessibility of education
• Strengthened the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to better protect the environment
• Supported passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (1980) protecting over 100 million acres of land in Alaska for conservation
• Signed the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) or "Superfund" (1980) providing funds for cleaning up hazardous waste sites (Love Canal, Times Beach)

Causes and effects of energy crisis

• OPEC oil embargo (1973-1974) caused quadrupling of oil prices shocking the global economy
• Increased global demand for oil strained supplies and drove up prices
• Declining domestic oil production in the U.S. made the country more reliant on foreign imports
• Heavy reliance on foreign oil imports left the U.S. vulnerable to supply disruptions
• Economic recession ensued with high inflation and unemployment rates and slower economic growth
• Long lines formed at gas stations as fuel shortages gripped the nation
• Increased public awareness of the need for energy conservation and alternative energy sources
• Political pressure mounted on the Carter administration to address the crisis and reduce dependence on foreign oil

Effectiveness of energy crisis response

• Creation of the Department of Energy (1977) consolidated energy-related responsibilities from various federal agencies and aimed to develop a comprehensive national energy policy improving coordination of policies and programs and increasing focus on conservation and renewables research
• National Energy Act (1978) promoted energy conservation and efficiency while encouraging development of alternative sources (solar, wind) but had limited short-term impact on the crisis while laying foundation for long-term changes in U.S. energy policy
• Implemented price controls on domestic oil and imposed a "windfall profits tax" on oil companies but these measures were politically controversial and did not significantly reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil in the short term
• Overall, Carter's energy policies had mixed effectiveness in the short term but helped spur a national conversation on energy and laid groundwork for future reforms

Impact of human rights-focused diplomacy

• Made human rights a central focus of U.S. foreign policy linking foreign aid and trade agreements to human rights conditions in recipient countries
• Publicly criticized human rights abuses in other countries drawing attention to the issue
• Strained relations with some Cold War allies like Argentina, Brazil, and Chile who resisted pressure on their human rights records
• Improved relations with some developing nations like India and Nigeria who appreciated the moral stance
• Had mixed impact on U.S.-Soviet relations as Carter criticized Soviet human rights abuses but also signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) II
• Faced challenges in balancing human rights concerns with strategic interests in maintaining relations with countries like Iran and Saudi Arabia despite their human rights issues
• Carter's human rights diplomacy changed the global conversation and made the issue a key consideration in international relations, even if the short-term geopolitical impact was limited