Classical Marxism, a 19th-century critique of capitalism, provides a framework for understanding international relations through class struggle and economic determinism. Shaped by the industrial revolution and political upheavals, Marx's ideas were influenced by Hegel, Feuerbach, and classical political economy.

Dialectical materialism forms the philosophical foundation, emphasizing material conditions in shaping society. Historical materialism applies this to human history, viewing it as driven by changes in production and class struggles. The mode of production determines social, political, and intellectual life.

Origins of classical Marxism

• Classical Marxism emerged in the 19th century as a critique of capitalism and a theory of social change, providing a foundational framework for understanding international relations through the lens of class struggle and economic determinism
• Marx's ideas were shaped by the industrial revolution and the rise of the working class, as well as by the political upheavals of his time, such as the revolutions of 1848

Influences on Marx's thought

• Hegel's dialectical method influenced Marx's understanding of historical change as a process driven by contradictions and conflict
• Feuerbach's materialism inspired Marx to focus on the material conditions of human existence rather than abstract ideas
• Classical political economy, particularly the works of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, provided Marx with a starting point for his critique of capitalism
• French socialism and the utopian socialist thinkers of his time, such as Fourier and Saint-Simon, influenced Marx's vision of a future communist society

Collaboration with Engels

• Marx's long-standing collaboration with Friedrich Engels was crucial to the development of classical Marxism
• Engels contributed to many of Marx's works, including The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867)
• Together, Marx and Engels laid the foundations for a comprehensive theory of society, economics, and politics that would have a profound impact on international relations

Dialectical materialism

• Dialectical materialism is the philosophical foundation of classical Marxism, combining Hegel's dialectical method with a materialist understanding of reality
• It emphasizes the primacy of material conditions in shaping human society and consciousness, rather than ideas or spiritual factors

Historical materialism

• Historical materialism is the application of dialectical materialism to the study of human history
• It views history as a process of development driven by changes in the material conditions of production and the resulting class struggles
• According to historical materialism, the mode of production determines the social, political, and intellectual life of a society

Modes of production

• The mode of production refers to the way in which a society organizes the production and distribution of goods and services
• Marx identified several modes of production throughout history, including primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, and capitalism
• Each mode of production is characterized by specific relations of production (class relations) and forces of production (technology and labor)

Base vs superstructure

• The base, or economic structure, of a society consists of the relations and forces of production, which form the foundation for the superstructure
• The superstructure includes the political, legal, and ideological institutions and beliefs that arise from and reinforce the economic base
• Changes in the base, such as the development of new productive forces, can lead to changes in the superstructure, as well as class conflict and social revolution

Class struggle as driving force

• Class struggle is the central driving force of historical change in classical Marxism
• It arises from the contradictions between the interests of different social classes, which are determined by their position in the relations of production

Bourgeoisie vs proletariat

• In capitalist society, the main class struggle is between the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (the working class who sell their labor)
• The bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat by extracting surplus value from their labor, leading to an antagonistic relationship between the two classes

Alienation and exploitation

• Alienation refers to the estrangement of workers from the products of their labor, the production process, their fellow workers, and their own human potential under capitalism
• Exploitation occurs when the bourgeoisie appropriates the surplus value created by the proletariat's labor, leading to the accumulation of capital and the impoverishment of the working class

Revolution and dictatorship of proletariat

• As class antagonisms intensify, Marx believed that the proletariat would ultimately rise up in revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a socialist society
• The dictatorship of the proletariat refers to the transitional period following the revolution, during which the working class would exercise political power to suppress counter-revolutionary forces and lay the foundations for a classless, communist society

Critique of capitalism

• Marx's critique of capitalism is central to classical Marxism and has significant implications for understanding international relations
• He argued that capitalism is inherently exploitative, crisis-prone, and ultimately unsustainable

Labor theory of value

• The labor theory of value holds that the value of a commodity is determined by the socially necessary labor time required to produce it
• Marx used this theory to explain how capitalists extract surplus value from workers, as the value of labor power (wages) is less than the value created by workers during the production process

Commodity fetishism

• Commodity fetishism refers to the way in which social relationships between people in capitalist society are obscured by the relationships between commodities (goods and services) in the market
• This leads to the perception of economic relations as natural and inevitable, rather than as historically specific and socially constructed

Contradictions and crisis tendencies

• Marx identified several contradictions and crisis tendencies inherent in capitalism, such as the tendency for the rate of profit to fall, overproduction, and the concentration and centralization of capital
• These contradictions periodically lead to economic crises, which Marx saw as opportunities for revolutionary change and the eventual collapse of the capitalist system

Imperialism as highest stage

• Lenin's theory of imperialism, built upon Marx's insights, argues that imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism
• It is characterized by the concentration and centralization of capital, the global expansion of capitalist powers, and inter-imperialist rivalry

Concentration and centralization of capital

• As capitalism develops, there is a tendency for capital to become concentrated in fewer and larger firms through mergers, acquisitions, and the elimination of competitors
• Centralization of capital refers to the increasing control of capital by financial institutions, such as banks and investment firms, which leads to the formation of monopolies and oligopolies

Global expansion and colonialism

• Imperialism involves the global expansion of capitalist powers in search of new markets, raw materials, and investment opportunities
• Colonialism, the direct political and economic control of foreign territories, is a key feature of imperialism, as it allows capitalist countries to exploit the resources and labor of subordinate nations

Inter-imperialist rivalry

• As capitalist powers compete for global dominance, inter-imperialist rivalries emerge, leading to conflicts and wars
• These rivalries are driven by the need to secure access to markets, resources, and spheres of influence, as well as to maintain the profitability of monopoly capital

Marxist theory of state

• The Marxist theory of the state views the state as an instrument of class rule, serving the interests of the dominant economic class in society
• This perspective challenges the notion of the state as a neutral arbiter of social conflicts and highlights its role in maintaining capitalist relations of production

State as instrument of class rule

• In capitalist society, the state primarily serves the interests of the bourgeoisie by protecting private property rights, enforcing contracts, and suppressing working-class resistance
• The state's monopoly on the legitimate use of force is used to maintain the existing social order and the dominance of the ruling class

Relative autonomy of state

• While the state is ultimately determined by the economic base, it can have a degree of relative autonomy in its actions
• This autonomy allows the state to mediate conflicts between different factions of the ruling class and to make concessions to subordinate classes in order to maintain social stability

Withering away of state

• Marx and Engels argued that in a future communist society, the state would eventually "wither away" as class distinctions and the need for a repressive apparatus disappeared
• This would involve the gradual transfer of state functions to the self-organized working class and the emergence of a classless, stateless society

Internationalism and world revolution

• Classical Marxism emphasizes the international character of the working class and the need for a global socialist revolution to overcome capitalism
• This internationalist perspective has important implications for understanding the dynamics of international relations and the potential for transnational solidarity

Proletarian internationalism

• Proletarian internationalism is the principle that the working class has no country and that workers of all nations should unite in their common struggle against capitalism
• This idea challenges the nationalist divisions promoted by the ruling class and emphasizes the shared interests of workers across borders

Permanent revolution

• Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution argues that in countries with a belated capitalist development, the bourgeoisie is too weak to carry out a democratic revolution, and that this task falls to the working class
• The working class, in turn, must not only overthrow the old regime but also continue the revolution to establish a socialist society, while spreading the revolution internationally

Communism as end goal

• The ultimate goal of classical Marxism is the establishment of a communist society, characterized by the abolition of private property, class distinctions, and the state
• In a communist society, the free development of each individual would be the condition for the free development of all, and production would be organized to meet human needs rather than to generate private profit
• Achieving communism requires a global revolution and the internationalization of the means of production, transcending the divisions and inequalities of the capitalist world order