Rome's founding blends myth and history, shaping its cultural identity. From legendary tales of Aeneas and Romulus to archaeological evidence of early settlements, the city's origins reflect a rich tapestry of influences, including Etruscan and Greek.

The Roman Republic emerged from the overthrow of monarchy in 509 BCE. This period saw the development of key institutions like the Senate and popular assemblies, as well as ongoing social struggles between patricians and plebeians, shaping Rome's political landscape.

Origins of Rome

• The origins of Rome are a blend of myth, legend, and archaeological evidence that provide insight into the early development of the city and its culture
• According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 BCE, but the area had been inhabited for centuries prior to this date
• The early influences on Roman culture and society came from the Etruscans, Greeks, and native Italic peoples

Aeneas and Romulus legends

• The legend of Aeneas, a Trojan prince who fled the destruction of Troy and settled in Italy, is one of the foundation myths of Rome
  • Aeneas' journey and adventures are chronicled in Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid, which became a cornerstone of Roman literature and identity
• The legend of Romulus and Remus, twin brothers who were suckled by a she-wolf and founded Rome, is another famous origin story
  • According to the legend, Romulus killed Remus in a dispute over the location of the city and became the first king of Rome
• These legends served to provide a mythical and heroic foundation for the city and to connect Rome with the great civilizations of the past (Troy and Greece)

Archaeological evidence of settlements

• Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of human settlement in the area of Rome dating back to the Bronze Age (c. 1500 BCE)
• The Palatine Hill, one of the famous seven hills of Rome, shows signs of continuous habitation from the 10th century BCE onward
• The discovery of hut urns, pottery, and other artifacts suggests a gradual development of the settlement over time, rather than a single founding event

Influence of Etruscan civilization

• The Etruscans, a civilization that flourished in central Italy before the rise of Rome, had a significant impact on early Roman culture and society
• Etruscan kings ruled Rome during the 6th century BCE, and their influence can be seen in Roman art, architecture, and religious practices
  • The Etruscans introduced the arch and the vault to Roman architecture, which would become hallmarks of Roman building
• The Etruscans also contributed to the development of Roman writing, as the Latin alphabet was adapted from the Etruscan script

Establishment of Roman Kingdom

• The Roman Kingdom, also known as the Regal Period, is the earliest period of Roman history, lasting from the traditional founding of the city in 753 BCE to the overthrow of the monarchy in 509 BCE
• During this time, Rome was ruled by a series of seven legendary kings, each of whom made important contributions to the development of the city and its institutions
• The transition from monarchy to republic was a gradual process, marked by social and political struggles between the patrician elite and the plebeian masses

Seven legendary kings of Rome

• The seven legendary kings of Rome were Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus
  • Each king is associated with specific achievements or reforms, such as the establishment of religious institutions, the expansion of Roman territory, or the construction of important public works
• The historicity of these kings is uncertain, as the earliest written records of Roman history date to several centuries after the Regal Period
  • However, the legends of the kings were an important part of Roman cultural memory and helped to shape Roman identity and values

Reforms of Servius Tullius

• Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome, is credited with implementing significant social and military reforms that laid the foundation for the Roman Republic
• He established the Centuriate Assembly, which divided Roman citizens into classes based on wealth and required them to serve in the military according to their means
  • This reform created a more organized and effective military force and gave political power to a wider range of citizens
• Servius Tullius also expanded the city of Rome and built a defensive wall around it, known as the Servian Wall

Rape of Lucretia and overthrow of monarchy

• The overthrow of the Roman monarchy is traditionally associated with the rape of Lucretia, a noblewoman, by Sextus Tarquinius, the son of King Tarquinius Superbus
• Lucretia's rape and subsequent suicide sparked a rebellion led by Lucius Junius Brutus, who vowed to avenge her death and end the tyranny of the kings
  • Brutus and his supporters succeeded in overthrowing Tarquinius Superbus and establishing the Roman Republic in 509 BCE
• The story of Lucretia became a powerful symbol of resistance to tyranny and the defense of Roman virtue and honor

Rise of Roman Republic

• The Roman Republic was established in 509 BCE after the overthrow of the monarchy and lasted until the rise of Julius Caesar and the Roman Empire in the 1st century BCE
• The Republic was characterized by a complex system of checks and balances, with power shared among various assemblies, magistrates, and the Senate
• The early years of the Republic were marked by social and political struggles between the patricians, the wealthy elite, and the plebeians, the common citizens

Patricians vs plebeians

• Roman society was divided into two main classes: the patricians, who were the wealthy landowners and the ruling elite, and the plebeians, who were the common citizens, including farmers, artisans, and merchants
• The patricians held a monopoly on political power and religious authority, while the plebeians were excluded from most government offices and had limited legal rights
  • This inequality led to ongoing tensions and conflicts between the two classes

Struggle of the Orders

• The Struggle of the Orders was a long period of political and social conflict between the patricians and plebeians, lasting from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BCE
• The plebeians fought for greater political representation, legal rights, and economic opportunities, while the patricians sought to maintain their privileged status
  • The plebeians used various tactics, such as secession (withdrawing from the city), to pressure the patricians into making concessions
• Over time, the plebeians gained access to important government offices, such as the tribunate and the consulship, and achieved greater legal and economic equality

Twelve Tables and rule of law

• The Twelve Tables were the first written laws of the Roman Republic, created in response to plebeian demands for clear and accessible legal codes
• The laws were inscribed on twelve bronze tablets and displayed in the Roman Forum for all citizens to see
  • The Twelve Tables covered a wide range of legal issues, including property rights, criminal offenses, and legal procedures
• The creation of the Twelve Tables marked an important step in the development of the rule of law in Rome, as they established a common set of legal principles that applied to all citizens, regardless of social class

Early Republican Institutions

• The Roman Republic was governed by a complex system of institutions, each with specific roles and responsibilities
• These institutions were designed to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a single individual or group and to ensure a balance between the interests of the patricians and plebeians
• The main institutions of the early Republic were the magistrates, the Senate, and the popular assemblies

Consuls and Senate

• The consuls were the highest-ranking magistrates in the Roman Republic, elected annually by the Centuriate Assembly
  • There were two consuls, each with the power to veto the actions of the other, to prevent any one individual from becoming too powerful
• The consuls were responsible for leading the army, conducting foreign policy, and administering the government
• The Senate was a council of elders, composed of former magistrates and other distinguished citizens
  • The Senate advised the consuls and other magistrates, and had significant influence over public policy and legislation

Tribunes and Assemblies

• The tribunes were elected officials who represented the interests of the plebeians and had the power to veto the actions of the magistrates and the Senate
  • The tribunes were sacrosanct, meaning that they could not be harmed or interfered with while in office
• The popular assemblies were gatherings of Roman citizens, organized by tribe or century, that had the power to elect magistrates, pass laws, and declare war
  • The most important assemblies were the Centuriate Assembly, which elected the consuls and other high-ranking magistrates, and the Tribal Assembly, which elected the tribunes and passed legislation

Dictators in times of crisis

• In times of military or political crisis, the Roman Republic allowed for the appointment of a dictator, a temporary magistrate with absolute power to address the emergency
• Dictators were appointed by the consuls, with the approval of the Senate, for a maximum term of six months
  • During their term, dictators had the authority to suspend normal government functions and to take whatever actions they deemed necessary to resolve the crisis
• The use of dictators was seen as a necessary safeguard against external threats and internal instability, but was also a potential threat to the republican system if abused

Roman Conquest of Italy

• The early Roman Republic was characterized by a series of wars and conquests that gradually expanded Roman control over the Italian peninsula
• These wars were driven by a combination of defensive necessity, economic interest, and the desire for glory and prestige among the Roman elite
• By the end of the 3rd century BCE, Rome had become the dominant power in Italy, setting the stage for its future expansion into the Mediterranean world

Wars with Latin League and Etruscans

• The first major conflicts of the Roman Republic were with the Latin League, a confederation of Latin cities in central Italy, and the Etruscans, a powerful civilization to the north of Rome
• The Latin War (498-493 BCE) resulted in the dissolution of the Latin League and the incorporation of its member cities into the Roman alliance system
  • The Foedus Cassianum, a treaty signed in 493 BCE, established Rome as the leading power in Latium
• The wars with the Etruscans, fought intermittently from the 6th to the 3rd centuries BCE, led to the gradual conquest of Etruscan territory and the decline of Etruscan power

Samnite Wars and control of central Italy

• The Samnite Wars (343-290 BCE) were a series of conflicts between Rome and the Samnites, a powerful tribal confederation in central and southern Italy
• The First Samnite War (343-341 BCE) was inconclusive, but the Second Samnite War (326-304 BCE) and the Third Samnite War (298-290 BCE) resulted in decisive Roman victories
  • The defeat of the Samnites gave Rome control over much of central Italy and opened the way for further expansion to the south

Pyrrhic War and dominance of southern Italy

• The Pyrrhic War (280-275 BCE) was a conflict between Rome and the Greek city-states of southern Italy, led by Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus
• Pyrrhus initially defeated the Romans in several battles, but his victories were costly and ultimately unsustainable
  • The phrase "Pyrrhic victory" is derived from this war, meaning a victory that is so costly that it is effectively a defeat
• The Roman victory in the Pyrrhic War completed the conquest of southern Italy and established Rome as the dominant power on the Italian peninsula

Roman Society in Early Republic

• Roman society in the early Republic was hierarchical and patriarchal, with social status determined by a combination of birth, wealth, and achievement
• The family was the basic unit of Roman society, and the paterfamilias, or male head of household, had extensive legal and social authority over his dependents
• Religion played a central role in Roman life, with a complex pantheon of gods and goddesses and a variety of public and private religious rituals

Patrician and plebeian families

• Roman families were divided into two main social classes: the patricians, who were the wealthy elite, and the plebeians, who were the common citizens
• Patrician families were organized into gentes, or clans, that traced their ancestry back to the founding of Rome and held a monopoly on political and religious power
  • Patricians were expected to maintain their family's honor and prestige through public service, military achievement, and moral rectitude
• Plebeian families were more numerous and diverse, ranging from wealthy merchants and landowners to poor farmers and laborers
  • Plebeians were initially excluded from most government offices and had limited legal rights, but gradually gained greater political and economic opportunities through the Struggle of the Orders

Role of slavery in Roman economy

• Slavery was a central institution in the Roman economy, with slaves performing a wide range of tasks in agriculture, industry, and domestic service
• Slaves were acquired through conquest, piracy, and trade, and were considered the property of their owners, with few legal rights or protections
  • However, some slaves were able to earn their freedom through manumission, often as a reward for loyal service or exceptional skills
• The use of slave labor allowed Roman elites to accumulate great wealth and maintain a luxurious lifestyle, but also created social tensions and the risk of slave revolts

Religion and cult of Vesta

• Religion was deeply intertwined with Roman politics and society, with public officials performing important religious duties and religious festivals marking the rhythm of the year
• The cult of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, was one of the most important religious institutions in early Rome
  • The Temple of Vesta, located in the Roman Forum, housed the sacred flame that symbolized the life and prosperity of the city
• The Vestal Virgins, a group of six priestesses chosen from patrician families, were responsible for tending the sacred flame and performing other religious rituals
  • Vestal Virgins were highly respected and enjoyed special privileges, but were also subject to strict rules of chastity and purity
  • The punishment for a Vestal Virgin who broke her vow of chastity was to be buried alive, reflecting the severity with which Romans viewed religious offenses