Greek science and technology laid the groundwork for modern Western civilization. From mathematics and astronomy to medicine and engineering, ancient Greek thinkers made groundbreaking discoveries that shaped our understanding of the world.

Their ideas spread through the Roman Empire and Islamic world, influencing medieval and Renaissance scholars. Greek contributions continue to impact fields like mathematics, physics, and medicine today, highlighting their enduring legacy in Western thought and innovation.

Greek contributions to mathematics

• Greek mathematicians made significant advancements in geometry, algebra, and number theory that laid the foundation for modern mathematics
• Their work influenced scholars in the Islamic world and later in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, where Greek texts were translated and studied extensively

Euclidean geometry

• Developed by Euclid in his treatise "Elements", which became the standard textbook for teaching geometry for over 2,000 years
• Based on a set of axioms and postulates, from which all other geometric principles could be logically derived
• Introduced the concepts of points, lines, planes, angles, and shapes, and explored their relationships and properties
• Included proofs for theorems such as the Pythagorean theorem and the properties of parallel lines

Pythagorean theorem

• States that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides (a² + b² = c²)
• Attributed to the Greek mathematician Pythagoras and his followers, although it was likely known earlier in Babylon and India
• Used extensively in geometry, trigonometry, and various practical applications such as construction and navigation

Archimedes' mathematical discoveries

• Archimedes of Syracuse made groundbreaking contributions to geometry, calculus, and mechanics
• Developed a method for calculating the volume and surface area of a sphere and a cylinder, showing that the volume of a sphere is two-thirds that of a circumscribed cylinder
• Approximated the value of pi (π) using the method of exhaustion, by inscribing and circumscribing polygons around a circle
• Laid the foundations for calculus through his work on infinitesimals and the concept of limits

Greek astronomy and cosmology

• Ancient Greeks made significant observations and theories about the nature of the universe, which influenced astronomical thought for centuries
• They developed mathematical models to explain the motion of celestial bodies and made accurate predictions of astronomical events

Geocentric model of the universe

• The prevailing view in ancient Greece was that the Earth was the center of the universe, with the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars orbiting around it
• This model was based on the observations that the Sun, Moon, and stars appeared to revolve around the Earth each day
• The geocentric model was further developed by Aristotle and Ptolemy, who added epicycles and deferents to explain the apparent retrograde motion of the planets

Contributions of Aristarchus and Eratosthenes

• Aristarchus of Samos proposed a heliocentric model of the universe, with the Sun at the center and the Earth and other planets orbiting around it
  • His ideas were not widely accepted at the time, but they influenced later astronomers such as Copernicus
• Eratosthenes of Cyrene calculated the circumference of the Earth with remarkable accuracy using the angle of the Sun's rays at different locations
  • He also created a system of latitude and longitude and made a map of the known world

Ptolemaic system

• Claudius Ptolemy developed a comprehensive astronomical model based on the geocentric theory, which remained the dominant view until the Scientific Revolution
• His treatise "Almagest" included a star catalog, a method for predicting planetary positions using epicycles and deferents, and tables for calculating astronomical events
• The Ptolemaic system was able to make accurate predictions of celestial phenomena, but it became increasingly complex as more observations were made

Greek medicine and anatomy

• Ancient Greek physicians made significant contributions to the understanding of human anatomy, physiology, and disease
• They developed a rational approach to medicine based on observation, diagnosis, and treatment, which laid the foundation for modern medical practice

Hippocratic Oath and medical ethics

• The Hippocratic Oath, attributed to the Greek physician Hippocrates, is an ethical code for the medical profession that is still used today in modified form
• It emphasizes the duties of the physician to respect patient confidentiality, act in the best interest of the patient, and maintain high moral standards
• The Hippocratic Corpus, a collection of medical texts attributed to Hippocrates and his followers, includes detailed descriptions of diseases, treatments, and surgical procedures

Galen's anatomical studies

• Galen of Pergamon was a prominent Greek physician who made extensive studies of human anatomy through dissection and vivisection of animals
• He identified the functions of various organs and systems, such as the heart, lungs, and nervous system, although some of his theories were later proven incorrect
• Galen's works became the standard medical texts in Europe for over a thousand years, influencing medical education and practice throughout the Medieval and Renaissance periods

Greek understanding of disease and treatment

• Greek physicians recognized that diseases had natural rather than supernatural causes, and sought to identify and treat the underlying imbalances in the body
• They believed in the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile), which had to be in balance for good health
• Treatment methods included diet, exercise, herbal remedies, and surgical procedures such as bloodletting and cauterization
• The Greeks also recognized the importance of preventive medicine, emphasizing healthy living habits and environmental factors in maintaining health

Greek engineering and architecture

• Ancient Greeks made significant advancements in engineering and architecture, which had a lasting influence on the Western world
• They developed new building materials, techniques, and styles that were adapted by the Romans and later civilizations

Classical architecture styles

• Greek architecture is characterized by the use of columns, pediments, and friezes, which became the hallmarks of the Classical style
• The three main orders of Greek architecture are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, each with distinct proportions and decorative elements
  • The Doric order is the simplest, with plain capitals and no base
  • The Ionic order is more slender and elegant, with scroll-shaped capitals and a base
  • The Corinthian order is the most ornate, with elaborate capitals decorated with acanthus leaves
• Greek temples, such as the Parthenon in Athens, were designed according to strict mathematical proportions and oriented to align with the cardinal directions

Archimedes' inventions and machines

• Archimedes of Syracuse was a renowned inventor and engineer who developed various machines and devices using the principles of mechanics and hydraulics
• He is credited with inventing the Archimedes screw, a device for raising water from a lower to a higher level, which was used for irrigation and drainage
• During the siege of Syracuse, he reportedly designed war machines such as catapults, cranes, and mirrors to defend the city against the Roman army
• Archimedes also made contributions to the understanding of levers, pulleys, and the concept of buoyancy, which he demonstrated through the famous "Eureka" story

Greek urban planning and infrastructure

• Greek cities were planned according to a grid system, with streets intersecting at right angles and public spaces such as agoras and theaters at the center
• They developed advanced water supply and sewage systems, using clay pipes and aqueducts to bring fresh water into the cities and remove waste
• The Greeks also built harbors, lighthouses, and bridges using advanced engineering techniques such as the arch and the dome
• The city of Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great in Egypt, became a model for Hellenistic urban planning, with its famous library, museum, and lighthouse (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World)

Roman adoption of Greek knowledge

• The Romans conquered the Greek world in the 2nd century BCE and adopted many aspects of Greek culture, including their knowledge of science, mathematics, and philosophy
• Greek texts were translated into Latin and studied extensively in Roman schools, becoming an integral part of Roman education and intellectual life

Translation and preservation of Greek texts

• Roman scholars such as Cicero, Pliny the Elder, and Seneca the Younger translated and commented on Greek works, making them accessible to a wider audience
• The Library of Alexandria, which contained the largest collection of Greek texts in the ancient world, was a major center of learning and scholarship
• Many Greek texts were lost or destroyed over time, but some were preserved through copies made by Roman scribes and later by Arab and Byzantine scholars

Roman education system and Greek influence

• The Roman education system was heavily influenced by Greek models, with students learning Greek language, literature, and philosophy alongside Latin
• Roman elites often sent their sons to study in Athens or other Greek cities, where they were exposed to Greek culture and ideas
• Greek rhetoricians and philosophers, such as Plotinus and Porphyry, taught in Rome and influenced Roman thought

Transmission of Greek ideas to the Islamic world

• After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Greek knowledge was preserved and expanded in the Islamic world, where Greek texts were translated into Arabic
• The House of Wisdom in Baghdad became a major center of learning, with scholars from various cultures working to translate and study Greek works
• Islamic scholars such as Al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna, and Averroes made significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, building on Greek foundations
• The transmission of Greek knowledge through the Islamic world later contributed to the Renaissance in Europe, as Arabic translations were retranslated into Latin

Influence on Medieval and Renaissance science

• Greek ideas and texts had a profound influence on the development of science in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, as scholars rediscovered and built upon the works of ancient authors
• The translation and study of Greek texts in the 12th and 13th centuries led to a revival of learning and the establishment of universities, where Greek knowledge was taught and debated

Rediscovery of Greek texts in the West

• During the Crusades and the Reconquista, European scholars came into contact with Arabic translations of Greek works, which were then translated into Latin
• The fall of Constantinople in 1453 led to an influx of Greek scholars and texts into Italy, fueling the Renaissance and the rediscovery of classical knowledge
• Printing technology in the 15th century allowed for the wider dissemination of Greek texts, making them more accessible to scholars and students

Greek ideas in Medieval Islamic science

• Islamic scholars such as Al-Biruni, Ibn al-Haytham, and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi made significant advancements in astronomy, optics, and mathematics, building on Greek foundations
• They developed new instruments and techniques for observation, such as the astrolabe and the camera obscura, and made accurate measurements of celestial phenomena
• Islamic medicine, based on the works of Hippocrates and Galen, made significant advancements in surgery, pharmacology, and hospital management

Renaissance humanism and Greek scholarship

• Renaissance humanists, such as Petrarch and Erasmus, emphasized the study of classical texts and the revival of Greek and Roman culture
• They sought to recover and translate ancient manuscripts, and to apply classical learning to contemporary issues and debates
• Greek scholarship became a central part of Renaissance education, with students learning Greek language and literature alongside Latin
• Renaissance artists and architects, such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, were influenced by Greek ideas of proportion, symmetry, and beauty

Legacy in modern science and technology

• Greek ideas and methods have had a lasting influence on the development of modern science and technology, from the Scientific Revolution to the present day
• Many of the fundamental concepts and techniques used in mathematics, physics, and engineering can be traced back to Greek thinkers and their works

Greek foundations of modern mathematics

• Greek mathematicians such as Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius laid the foundations for modern geometry, algebra, and calculus
• Their works, such as Euclid's "Elements" and Archimedes' "On the Sphere and Cylinder," became the standard textbooks for mathematical education for centuries
• The Greek emphasis on logical reasoning, proof, and abstraction influenced the development of modern mathematical thought, from Descartes to Hilbert

Influence on scientific method and reasoning

• The Greek approach to natural philosophy, based on observation, experimentation, and logical reasoning, laid the foundations for the modern scientific method
• Aristotle's works on logic, such as the "Organon," influenced the development of deductive reasoning and the syllogism, which became central to scientific argumentation
• The Greek emphasis on empirical evidence and the use of mathematics to describe natural phenomena influenced the work of scientists such as Galileo, Newton, and Einstein

Greek contributions to modern medicine and anatomy

• Greek medical texts, such as the Hippocratic Corpus and the works of Galen, remained influential in medical education and practice until the 19th century
• The Hippocratic Oath, with its emphasis on ethical principles and patient care, continues to be used in modified form by medical professionals today
• Greek anatomical studies, based on dissection and observation, laid the foundations for modern anatomy and physiology
• The Greek emphasis on the natural causes of disease and the importance of diet, exercise, and environment in maintaining health influenced the development of modern preventive medicine and public health.