Prejudice stems from various sources, including intergroup conflict and individual factors like authoritarian personalities. These biases manifest in behaviors favoring one's own group and derogating others, often leading to internalized negative stereotypes among targeted individuals.

The consequences of prejudice are far-reaching, perpetuating stereotypes and discrimination while reinforcing social inequalities. This creates psychological stress for targeted groups and hinders positive intergroup relations, impacting overall social cohesion and individual well-being.

Causes of Prejudice

Theories of Intergroup Conflict

• Realistic conflict theory posits competition for limited resources leads to prejudice between groups
  • Occurs when groups perceive a threat to their interests or well-being
  • Can arise from economic competition, political power struggles, or territorial disputes
  • Robbers Cave Experiment demonstrated how artificially created competition led to hostility between groups of boys at a summer camp
• Social identity theory explains prejudice stems from individuals' need for positive self-esteem through group membership
  • People categorize themselves and others into social groups
  • Individuals strive to maintain a positive social identity by comparing their ingroup favorably to outgroups
  • Minimal group paradigm experiments showed even arbitrary group assignments can lead to ingroup favoritism

Individual Factors Contributing to Prejudice

• Authoritarian personality describes a set of traits associated with prejudiced attitudes
  • Characterized by rigid thinking, obedience to authority, and intolerance of ambiguity
  • Developed by Theodor Adorno and colleagues to understand the psychological basis of fascism and antisemitism
  • Measured using the F-scale (Fascism scale) which assesses authoritarian tendencies
• Intergroup anxiety involves feeling threatened or uncomfortable in interactions with outgroup members
  • Can lead to avoidance of intergroup contact, reinforcing prejudiced attitudes
  • Often stems from lack of positive intergroup experiences or exposure to negative stereotypes
  • Reduced through positive intergroup contact and exposure to counter-stereotypical examples
• Scapegoating involves blaming an outgroup for one's own or society's problems
  • Often targets vulnerable or marginalized groups
  • Serves as a psychological defense mechanism to deflect blame and reduce feelings of helplessness
  • Historical examples include antisemitism in Nazi Germany and xenophobia during economic downturns

Manifestations of Prejudice

Biased Intergroup Behavior

• Ingroup favoritism involves preferential treatment of one's own group members
  • Manifests in resource allocation, social preferences, and evaluation of performance
  • Can occur even in the absence of outgroup hostility
  • Demonstrated in minimal group paradigm experiments where participants favored their assigned group without explicit competition
• Outgroup derogation encompasses negative attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors directed at members of other groups
  • Can range from subtle microaggressions to overt discrimination and violence
  • Often based on stereotypes and overgeneralized negative attributes
  • Includes verbal slurs, social exclusion, and discriminatory practices in various domains (employment, housing)

Internalization of Prejudice

• Stereotype embodiment describes how targets of prejudice internalize negative stereotypes about their group
  • Can lead to decreased self-esteem, performance anxiety, and self-limiting behaviors
  • Occurs through repeated exposure to prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory experiences
  • Stereotype threat demonstrates how awareness of negative stereotypes can impair performance in stereotyped domains (women in math, African Americans in academics)

Consequences of Prejudice

Perpetuation of Stereotypes and Discrimination

• Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when expectations about a group lead to behaviors that confirm those expectations
  • Teachers' low expectations of minority students can lead to reduced academic support and poorer performance
  • Employer biases in hiring can result in fewer opportunities for marginalized groups, reinforcing stereotypes about their capabilities
  • Rosenthal and Jacobson's Pygmalion effect study showed how teacher expectations influenced student performance
• Prejudice reinforces existing social inequalities and creates barriers to equal opportunities
  • Affects various life domains including education, employment, healthcare, and criminal justice
  • Contributes to the persistence of socioeconomic disparities between groups
  • Institutional discrimination perpetuates systemic biases (redlining in housing, school funding disparities)

Psychological and Social Impact

• Targets of prejudice experience increased stress, anxiety, and depression
  • Chronic exposure to discrimination can lead to negative health outcomes (cardiovascular problems, substance abuse)
  • Stereotype threat impairs cognitive performance and reduces academic and career aspirations
  • Social isolation and reduced sense of belonging in various settings (workplace, educational institutions)
• Prejudice hinders intergroup relations and social cohesion
  • Creates mistrust and tension between different social groups
  • Reduces opportunities for positive intergroup contact and cooperation
  • Can escalate into more severe forms of conflict and violence in extreme cases (hate crimes, ethnic conflicts)