Language attrition is the gradual loss of language skills over time. It can affect both native and learned languages, impacting vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Factors like age, frequency of use, motivation, and linguistic distance influence the rate and extent of attrition.

Neurological and cognitive processes play key roles in language attrition. Brain plasticity allows for neural reorganization, while memory systems and attention processes affect language retention. Attrition can impact various linguistic domains, including lexicon, syntax, and phonology.

Definition of language attrition

• Language attrition refers to the gradual loss or deterioration of language skills in individuals
• Occurs when a person stops using a language or uses it less frequently over time
• Impacts various aspects of language proficiency including vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation

Types of language attrition

First language attrition

• Occurs when an individual's native language skills deteriorate
• Often observed in immigrants who primarily use a second language in their new environment
• Can affect both children and adults, though children may experience more rapid attrition
• Manifests in reduced vocabulary, simplified grammar, and accent changes

Second language attrition

• Involves the loss of proficiency in a non-native language
• Commonly seen in individuals who have learned a foreign language but no longer use it regularly
• Affects different language skills at varying rates (listening, speaking, reading, writing)
• May result in difficulty recalling words, slower processing, and reduced fluency

Factors influencing language attrition

Age and critical period

• Younger individuals generally experience faster and more extensive language attrition
• Critical period hypothesis suggests a window of time for optimal language acquisition and retention
• Children under 12 are more susceptible to first language attrition when immersed in a new language environment
• Adults may experience slower but still significant attrition, especially in second language skills

Frequency of language use

• Regular language use helps maintain proficiency and slow down attrition
• Lack of exposure or practice accelerates the rate of language loss
• Active production (speaking, writing) more effective in preventing attrition than passive exposure (listening, reading)
• Threshold frequency varies among individuals and language skills

Motivation and attitudes

• Positive attitudes towards a language can slow down attrition
• Instrumental motivation (career, academic) may help maintain language skills
• Integrative motivation (cultural connection) often leads to better long-term retention
• Negative attitudes or experiences with a language can accelerate attrition

Linguistic distance

• Languages that are more similar (Spanish and Italian) may experience less attrition
• Greater linguistic distance (English and Chinese) can lead to faster and more extensive attrition
• Cognates and shared grammatical structures can help maintain proficiency in related languages
• Transfer effects between languages influence the rate and extent of attrition

Neurological aspects

Brain plasticity

• Neural plasticity allows the brain to reorganize language networks
• Higher plasticity in younger brains contributes to both faster acquisition and potential attrition
• Decreased plasticity in adults may slow down attrition but also make relearning more challenging
• Neuroplasticity plays a role in the brain's ability to maintain multiple languages

Neural reorganization

• Language attrition involves changes in neural pathways and activation patterns
• Underused language areas may be repurposed for other cognitive functions
• Functional MRI studies show shifts in brain activation during language tasks in attriters
• Neural pruning can lead to the weakening of connections associated with the attriting language

Cognitive processes in attrition

Memory systems

• Declarative memory (explicit knowledge) more vulnerable to attrition than procedural memory
• Semantic memory (word meanings) often affected before episodic memory (personal experiences)
• Working memory capacity influences the rate of language attrition
• Long-term memory consolidation plays a role in language retention and attrition

Attention and inhibition

• Reduced attention to language details can contribute to attrition
• Inhibition of the dominant language becomes more difficult as attrition progresses
• Executive control processes influence the ability to switch between languages
• Attentional resources may shift away from the attriting language over time

Linguistic domains affected

Lexical attrition

• Vocabulary often the first and most noticeably affected area
• Low-frequency words more susceptible to attrition than high-frequency words
• Word retrieval difficulties (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon) increase
• Semantic narrowing or broadening of word meanings may occur

Syntactic attrition

• Grammatical structures simplify or become less complex
• Word order may shift towards the dominant language patterns
• Morphological markers (tense, aspect, agreement) become less consistent
• Complex constructions (relative clauses, conditionals) show increased errors

Phonological attrition

• Accent changes or foreign accent syndrome may develop
• Phoneme distinctions unique to the attriting language become less pronounced
• Prosodic features (intonation, stress patterns) shift towards the dominant language
• Perception of non-native sounds in the attriting language may deteriorate

Sociolinguistic factors

Language prestige

• Languages with higher social status or global importance may resist attrition
• Low-prestige languages or dialects more vulnerable to attrition in multilingual contexts
• Perceived usefulness of a language influences motivation to maintain proficiency
• Societal attitudes towards multilingualism affect individual language maintenance efforts

Cultural identity

• Strong cultural identification can slow down language attrition
• Loss of language skills may lead to feelings of cultural disconnection
• Maintaining cultural practices helps preserve associated language abilities
• Bicultural individuals may experience less severe attrition due to dual language value

Measurement and assessment

Proficiency tests

• Standardized language tests (TOEFL, IELTS) used to measure attrition over time
• Productive skills (speaking, writing) often show attrition before receptive skills (listening, reading)
• Error analysis reveals patterns of linguistic deterioration
• Reaction time measurements indicate processing speed changes in the attriting language

Self-report measures

• Questionnaires assess perceived language abilities and use patterns
• Can-do statements evaluate functional language skills in various domains
• Language background questionnaires gather information on language history and exposure
• Self-ratings may not always accurately reflect actual proficiency levels

Reversing language attrition

Relearning strategies

• Spaced repetition techniques help reactivate dormant language knowledge
• Explicit grammar instruction may be necessary to recover lost structures
• Vocabulary building exercises focus on retrieving and expanding lexical knowledge
• Metalinguistic awareness training aids in recognizing and correcting attrition effects

Immersion techniques

• Short-term intensive language courses can jumpstart the relearning process
• Language exchange partnerships provide authentic communication practice
• Media consumption in the attriting language helps reactivate passive knowledge
• Cultural immersion experiences combine language exposure with motivational factors

Implications for language teaching

Maintenance programs

• Regular refresher courses prevent severe attrition in second language learners
• Online platforms offer continuous engagement opportunities for language maintenance
• Community language schools support heritage language retention
• Workplace language programs help maintain professional language skills

Heritage language education

• Tailored curricula address the unique needs of heritage language speakers
• Focus on literacy skills development in addition to oral proficiency
• Cultural components strengthen language-identity connections
• Peer group activities foster a supportive environment for language use

Language attrition vs acquisition

• Attrition often follows the reverse order of acquisition (last learned, first forgotten)
• Acquisition involves building new neural pathways, while attrition involves weakening existing ones
• Metalinguistic knowledge may be retained even as productive skills decline
• Relearning an attrited language generally faster than initial acquisition

Research methodologies

Longitudinal studies

• Track language changes in individuals over extended periods
• Allow for observation of attrition patterns and rates in real-time
• Often involve emigrants or returnees to capture long-term language changes
• Challenges include participant retention and controlling for external variables

Cross-sectional studies

• Compare groups at different stages of potential attrition
• Provide snapshot data of language skills across various populations
• Useful for identifying factors correlated with different levels of attrition
• Limitations include cohort effects and inability to track individual changes over time

Theoretical models

Activation threshold hypothesis

• Proposes that language items require a certain level of activation for retrieval
• Less frequently used items have higher activation thresholds, leading to attrition
• Explains why high-frequency words and structures are more resistant to attrition
• Suggests that regular language use keeps activation thresholds low, preventing loss

Dynamic systems theory

• Views language as a complex, interconnected system in constant flux
• Attrition seen as a natural part of language development, not just loss
• Emphasizes the non-linear nature of language change and attrition
• Considers multiple interacting factors in the process of language maintenance and loss

Individual differences

Personality factors

• Extroversion may lead to more language use opportunities, slowing attrition
• Openness to experience correlates with willingness to engage with the attriting language
• Anxiety levels can affect language performance and perceived attrition
• Motivation and self-efficacy influence efforts to maintain language skills

Cognitive abilities

• Working memory capacity affects ability to juggle multiple languages
• Executive function skills influence language control and attrition resistance
• General intelligence may provide cognitive reserve, slowing attrition effects
• Metalinguistic awareness helps in monitoring and correcting language errors

Language attrition in bilinguals

Code-switching effects

• Increased code-switching may indicate or contribute to attrition in one language
• Bilingual mode activation can temporarily boost access to the attriting language
• Unintentional language mixing may occur more frequently as attrition progresses
• Strategic code-switching can serve as a compensatory mechanism for lexical gaps

Language dominance shifts

• Attrition in one language often accompanies increased proficiency in another
• Dominance shifts can occur rapidly in children exposed to a new language environment
• Adults may experience more gradual changes in language dominance
• Balanced bilinguals may show greater resistance to attrition in either language

Societal implications

Language policy

• Educational policies impact heritage language maintenance and attrition rates
• Immigration policies influence opportunities for language use and retention
• Official language statuses affect perceived value and motivation for language maintenance
• Language rights legislation can support or hinder efforts to prevent community language attrition

Linguistic diversity preservation

• Language attrition contributes to global language endangerment and loss
• Community-based language revitalization efforts combat attrition at societal level
• Documentation of at-risk languages helps preserve linguistic knowledge
• Promotion of multilingualism supports individual and societal language retention