Kant's moral philosophy revolves around the categorical imperative, a universal moral law based on duty and reason. He argues that actions should be guided by principles that can be universalized, treating humanity as an end in itself and respecting moral autonomy.

In "Perpetual Peace," Kant outlines a vision for lasting global harmony through a federation of free states. He proposes cosmopolitan rights and republican constitutions as foundations for peaceful international relations and the eventual establishment of a world federation.

Kant's Moral Philosophy

Categorical Imperative and Duty-Based Ethics

• Kant's moral philosophy centers around the concept of the categorical imperative, a supreme principle of morality derived from pure reason alone
• The categorical imperative is a moral law that is unconditional and applies to all rational beings, regardless of their desires or circumstances
• Kant argues that moral actions must be based on a sense of duty rather than on consequences or emotions
• Duty-based ethics, also known as deontological ethics, holds that certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their outcomes (lying)
• Kant believes that the moral worth of an action is determined by the intention behind it, not by its results

Universal Law and Kingdom of Ends

• The first formulation of the categorical imperative is the universal law, which states that one should act only according to maxims that can be universalized without contradiction
• This means that the moral principles guiding our actions should be applicable to all people in similar situations (keeping promises)
• The second formulation is the kingdom of ends, which requires treating humanity as an end in itself and never merely as a means to an end
• This principle emphasizes the inherent dignity and worth of all rational beings and prohibits exploiting or manipulating others for personal gain
• The kingdom of ends envisions a hypothetical community in which all members respect each other's autonomy and moral agency

Moral Autonomy

• Kant emphasizes the importance of moral autonomy, the capacity of rational beings to freely choose and act upon moral principles
• Autonomy involves acting in accordance with the categorical imperative out of a sense of duty, rather than being influenced by external factors or inclinations
• Kant distinguishes between heteronomy, acting based on desires or external influences, and autonomy, acting based on self-imposed moral laws
• True moral worth arises from the exercise of moral autonomy, as it demonstrates a commitment to moral principles for their own sake
• Kant argues that the capacity for moral autonomy is what sets human beings apart from other creatures and gives them a special moral status

Perpetual Peace

Perpetual Peace and Federation of Free States

• In his essay "Perpetual Peace," Kant outlines a vision for achieving lasting peace among nations
• Perpetual peace refers to a state of affairs in which war and conflict are permanently eliminated, and nations coexist harmoniously
• Kant proposes the establishment of a federation of free states, a voluntary association of nations committed to maintaining peace
• The member states of this federation would agree to a set of articles designed to prevent war and promote cooperation
• These articles include provisions such as the abolition of standing armies, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, and the gradual formation of a world government

Cosmopolitan Right and Republican Constitution

• Kant introduces the concept of cosmopolitan right, which extends hospitality and protection to individuals as citizens of the world, not just as citizens of particular states
• Cosmopolitan right entails the freedom to travel and engage in commerce across borders without fear of hostility or discrimination
• Kant argues that cosmopolitan right is necessary for fostering understanding and cooperation among peoples and for creating the conditions for perpetual peace
• He also maintains that a republican constitution is essential for achieving perpetual peace, as it separates the executive power from the legislative power and protects individual rights
• A republican constitution ensures that political decisions are made through public debate and representation, rather than by the arbitrary will of a monarch or dictator
• Kant believes that the adoption of republican constitutions by all nations would create a foundation for peaceful international relations and the eventual establishment of a world federation