The boarding school system was a key component of U.S. assimilation policies towards Native Americans in the late 19th century. These institutions aimed to eradicate Native cultures and force Indigenous children to adopt Euro-American ways of life.

Boarding schools operated under a highly regimented system designed to rapidly transform Native children. The structure mimicked military academies, emphasizing discipline, obedience, and conformity to facilitate the erasure of Native cultures and identities.

Origins of boarding schools

• Boarding schools emerged as a key component of the U.S. government's assimilation policies towards Native Americans in the late 19th century
• These institutions aimed to eradicate Native cultures and force Indigenous children to adopt Euro-American ways of life
• The boarding school system played a significant role in the broader history of Native American oppression and cultural genocide

Assimilation policies

• "Kill the Indian, save the man" philosophy guided the creation of Native American boarding schools
• Aimed to rapidly assimilate Native children into mainstream American society through education and cultural indoctrination
• Supported by the Indian Civilization Act of 1819, which provided federal funding for Native American education
• Implemented through a series of treaties and laws that often coerced Native families into sending their children to these schools

Carlisle Indian School model

• Founded by Richard Henry Pratt in 1879 in Carlisle, Pennsylvania
• Served as the prototype for over 350 government-funded, church-run boarding schools across the United States
• Emphasized complete immersion in Euro-American culture and strict military-style discipline
• Implemented a half-day work, half-day study program to teach industrial skills and instill the value of manual labor
• Motto "To civilize the Indian, get him into civilization. To keep him civilized, let him stay" reflected the school's assimilationist goals

Structure and organization

• Boarding schools operated under a highly regimented system designed to rapidly transform Native children
• The structure mimicked military academies, emphasizing discipline, obedience, and conformity
• These institutions aimed to create a controlled environment that would facilitate the erasure of Native cultures and identities

Daily routines

• Strict schedules governed every aspect of students' lives from dawn to dusk
• Morning routines included military-style drills, flag-raising ceremonies, and mandatory Christian prayers
• Meals were served at set times, often featuring unfamiliar foods to Native children
• Evenings dedicated to study halls, additional chores, or supervised recreational activities
• Weekends often involved mandatory church attendance and limited free time

Academic curriculum

• Focused primarily on English language acquisition and literacy
• Emphasized American history and civics to instill patriotism and loyalty to the United States
• Mathematics and basic sciences taught with an emphasis on practical applications
• Art classes often restricted to European-style techniques and subjects
• Native histories, languages, and cultural knowledge deliberately excluded from the curriculum

Vocational training

• Half-day labor program implemented in most schools to teach industrial and domestic skills
• Boys trained in agriculture, carpentry, blacksmithing, and other manual trades
• Girls received instruction in sewing, cooking, laundry, and other domestic tasks
• "Outing system" placed older students with white families or businesses for work experience
• Vocational focus aimed to prepare Native students for low-wage labor and servitude in white society

Cultural suppression

• Boarding schools systematically targeted Native cultures for eradication
• The suppression of Indigenous languages, religions, and practices was central to the assimilation process
• This cultural assault had profound and lasting impacts on Native communities and individuals

Language prohibition

• Speaking Native languages strictly forbidden and often harshly punished
• English-only policies enforced through physical discipline, public humiliation, and isolation
• Children forced to communicate solely in English, even with siblings or relatives
• Native languages viewed as obstacles to assimilation and civilization by school administrators
• Loss of fluency in Native languages led to communication barriers between generations

Traditional practices vs Christianity

• Native spiritual and cultural practices banned and demonized as "pagan" or "savage"
• Mandatory Christian education and church attendance imposed on all students
• Traditional Native hairstyles, clothing, and personal adornments prohibited
• Sacred objects and ceremonial items confiscated or destroyed upon arrival at the schools
• Christian holidays celebrated while Native ceremonies and observances suppressed

Forced name changes

• Native names replaced with English names upon enrollment in boarding schools
• Children assigned new first names and often generic last names (Smith, Jones)
• Name changes intended to erase cultural identity and family connections
• Many students given numbers instead of names, further dehumanizing them
• Loss of Native names disrupted traditional naming practices and cultural continuity

Living conditions

• Boarding schools often operated with inadequate funding and resources
• Poor living conditions contributed to high rates of illness and mortality among Native students
• The harsh environment exacerbated the trauma of cultural dislocation and family separation

Health and sanitation issues

• Overcrowded dormitories and classrooms facilitated the rapid spread of infectious diseases
• Inadequate medical care and lack of proper sanitation led to outbreaks of tuberculosis, influenza, and other illnesses
• Many schools lacked basic amenities like indoor plumbing or proper heating systems
• Students often forced to perform manual labor related to sanitation and maintenance
• High mortality rates due to disease and neglect, with many children buried in unmarked graves on school grounds

Nutrition and food quality

• Meals often insufficient in quantity and lacking in nutritional value
• Unfamiliar foods caused digestive issues and cultural shock for many Native children
• Some schools used food deprivation as a form of punishment or control
• Agricultural labor by students sometimes used to supplement school food supplies
• Malnutrition contributed to weakened immune systems and increased susceptibility to disease

Overcrowding and dormitories

• Dormitories packed with students, often with inadequate bed space and personal storage
• Lack of privacy and personal space contributed to feelings of dehumanization
• Separation of siblings and mixing of children from different tribes to discourage cultural bonds
• Poor ventilation and heating in dormitories exacerbated health issues
• Nighttime bed checks and strict curfews enforced to prevent escapes or rule-breaking

Psychological impact

• The boarding school experience inflicted severe psychological trauma on Native children
• The effects of this trauma continue to impact Native communities across generations
• Understanding the psychological impact is crucial for addressing ongoing issues in Native American mental health

Separation from family

• Forced removal from parents and extended family at young ages caused attachment disorders
• Lack of nurturing relationships and emotional support during crucial developmental years
• Many children experienced feelings of abandonment, confusion, and intense homesickness
• Limited or no contact with family members for extended periods, sometimes years
• Disruption of traditional family structures and intergenerational knowledge transfer

Loss of cultural identity

• Systematic erasure of Native languages, customs, and beliefs led to a crisis of identity
• Many survivors struggled to reconnect with their Native heritage after leaving the schools
• Internalized shame and self-hatred resulting from constant denigration of Native cultures
• Difficulty navigating between Native and Euro-American worlds upon returning to communities
• Loss of traditional knowledge and skills necessary for maintaining cultural practices

Trauma and long-term effects

• High rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among boarding school survivors
• Increased prevalence of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse in affected communities
• Disrupted attachment patterns led to difficulties in forming healthy relationships later in life
• Unresolved trauma passed down through generations, contributing to cycles of abuse and neglect
• Lasting impact on parenting skills and family dynamics within Native communities

Resistance and survival

• Despite the oppressive nature of boarding schools, Native students found ways to resist and preserve their cultures
• Acts of resistance ranged from small, daily defiances to organized efforts to maintain cultural practices
• The resilience demonstrated by Native children and communities played a crucial role in cultural survival

Student coping mechanisms

• Secret language practice among students to maintain fluency in Native tongues
• Covert sharing of traditional stories, songs, and cultural knowledge
• Formation of tight-knit peer groups for emotional support and cultural reinforcement
• Use of humor and shared experiences to cope with trauma and maintain morale
• Creative adaptations of school activities to incorporate elements of Native cultures

Preservation of native languages

• Development of code-switching abilities to maintain Native language skills while avoiding punishment
• Creation of hidden writing systems or use of Native languages in art to preserve vocabulary
• Older students teaching younger ones their Native languages in secret
• Memorization of songs, prayers, and stories in Native languages to pass on after leaving school
• Some students deliberately forgetting English upon returning home to reclaim their Native tongue

Cultural resilience

• Adaptation of traditional practices to fit within the constraints of boarding school life
• Incorporation of Native designs and techniques into art and craft projects assigned by schools
• Maintenance of spiritual beliefs and practices in private or disguised forms
• Preservation of tribal identities and kinship connections despite efforts to erase them
• Use of school-taught skills (literacy, English) to advocate for Native rights and preserve cultural knowledge

Legacy and aftermath

• The boarding school era left a profound and lasting impact on Native American communities
• Understanding this legacy is crucial for addressing ongoing issues and working towards healing and reconciliation
• The effects of the boarding school system continue to shape Native American experiences and policy discussions today

Intergenerational trauma

• Trauma experienced by boarding school survivors passed down to subsequent generations
• Higher rates of mental health issues, substance abuse, and domestic violence in affected communities
• Disruption of traditional parenting practices and family structures
• Loss of cultural knowledge and language fluency across multiple generations
• Ongoing struggles with identity, self-esteem, and cultural connection among descendants of survivors

Impact on native communities

• Erosion of traditional governance structures and leadership patterns
• Fragmentation of extended family networks and clan systems
• Economic challenges due to loss of traditional skills and forced relocation
• Increased rates of out-adoption and child welfare involvement in Native families
• Lasting distrust of educational institutions and government programs among many Native people

Reconciliation efforts

• Establishment of truth and reconciliation commissions in some regions to document boarding school experiences
• Government apologies and acknowledgments of harm caused by the boarding school system
• Creation of healing programs and cultural revitalization initiatives in Native communities
• Efforts to repatriate remains of children who died at boarding schools to their tribal communities
• Ongoing legal battles and advocacy for reparations and increased support for Native education

Modern perspectives

• Contemporary views on the boarding school era reflect a growing awareness of its devastating impact
• Native communities are actively engaged in healing processes and cultural revitalization efforts
• There is increasing recognition of the need to address the legacy of boarding schools in broader society

Survivor testimonies

• Increased documentation and sharing of survivor stories through oral histories and memoirs
• Use of survivor testimonies in educational materials to raise awareness about boarding school history
• Emergence of support groups and healing circles for survivors to share experiences and cope with trauma
• Integration of survivor perspectives into policy discussions on Native American issues
• Efforts to preserve and honor the memories of those who did not survive the boarding school system

Government apologies

• Official apologies issued by various government entities (U.S., Canada, individual states) for boarding school policies
• Acknowledgment of the harm caused by forced assimilation and cultural suppression
• Commitments to support Native language revitalization and cultural preservation efforts
• Establishment of truth and reconciliation processes to fully document the boarding school era
• Ongoing debates about the adequacy of apologies without accompanying reparations or systemic changes

Contemporary native education

• Development of tribally-controlled schools and colleges to provide culturally-relevant education
• Integration of Native languages, histories, and cultural practices into curriculum
• Efforts to increase Native representation among teachers and educational administrators
• Implementation of trauma-informed practices in schools serving Native communities
• Advocacy for accurate representation of Native histories and cultures in mainstream educational materials