Focus of attention is crucial in motor learning. Internal focus directs attention to body movements, while external focus emphasizes movement effects on the environment. Research shows external focus often leads to better learning and performance across various tasks and skill levels.

The constrained action hypothesis suggests internal focus disrupts automatic control processes, while external focus promotes efficient movement patterns. This topic highlights how attentional strategies can significantly impact motor skill acquisition and performance, emphasizing the importance of proper focus in learning and executing movements.

Internal vs External Focus of Attention

Differentiating Between Internal and External Focus

• Internal focus of attention directs the learner's attention to their own body movements
  • Focuses on the position of arms or legs during a specific movement (arm extension in a tennis serve, foot placement in a soccer kick)
• External focus of attention directs the learner's attention to the effects of their movements on the environment
  • Focuses on the trajectory of a ball they are throwing or the target they are aiming for (the arc of a basketball shot, the bullseye in archery)
• The distinction between internal and external focus is based on the direction of the learner's attention
  • Internal focus: towards their own body
  • External focus: towards the outcome of their actions

Impact on Motor Skill Acquisition and Performance

• Attentional focus can significantly influence the effectiveness of motor skill acquisition and the quality of performance
• An external focus of attention enhances motor learning and performance compared to an internal focus in many tasks
  • Basketball shooting, golf putting, balance tasks
• The constrained action hypothesis suggests that an internal focus of attention can disrupt automatic control processes
  • Leads to decreased performance and learning
• An external focus of attention promotes more efficient and effective movement patterns
  • Allows the motor system to self-organize and exploit natural movement tendencies

Attentional Focus and Motor Skill Learning

Research Findings on Effectiveness

• Numerous studies have consistently demonstrated the superiority of an external focus of attention over an internal focus for motor skill learning and performance
• A meta-analysis by Wulf (2013) found that an external focus of attention enhances motor learning and performance across a wide range of tasks and skill levels
  • Average effect size of 0.48
• Benefits of an external focus of attention are evident in both novice and skilled performers
  • Also seen in different age groups and populations (children, older adults, individuals with motor impairments)
• Some studies suggest that the optimal distance of the external focus from the body may vary depending on the task and the individual's skill level
  • A more distal focus may be beneficial for skilled performers (focusing on the flight of the ball vs. the racket in tennis)
• While the majority of research supports the advantages of an external focus, a few studies have found no significant differences between internal and external focus conditions
  • Highlights the need for further investigation into potential moderating factors (task complexity, individual differences)

Potential Mechanisms and Explanations

• The constrained action hypothesis proposes that an internal focus of attention interferes with automatic motor control processes
  • Constrains the motor system and disrupts the natural coordination of movements
• An external focus of attention allows for more automatic and unconscious control of movements
  • Facilitates the utilization of implicit learning mechanisms and reduces conscious interference
• An external focus may promote a more efficient organization of the motor system
  • Encourages the recruitment of relevant muscle synergies and minimizes unnecessary muscular activity
• Focusing on the effects of movements on the environment may provide more salient and meaningful feedback for the learner
  • Enhances the formation of accurate internal models and facilitates error detection and correction

Effectiveness of Attentional Focus Strategies

Advantages of an External Focus

• Enhanced motor learning and retention
  • Faster acquisition of new skills and improved long-term retention of learned skills
• Improved performance outcomes
  • Greater accuracy, consistency, and efficiency in executing motor tasks
• Reduced cognitive load and attentional demands
  • Allows for more automatic and fluid execution of movements
• Increased movement efficiency and economy
  • Optimized coordination patterns and reduced muscular activity
• Facilitated transfer of learning to novel tasks and contexts
  • Promotes the development of generalizable motor skills

Limitations and Considerations

• Individual differences in attentional preferences and learning styles
  • Some learners may benefit from a combination of internal and external focus cues depending on the stage of learning and personal preferences
• Task complexity and skill level
  • The optimal attentional focus strategy may vary depending on the complexity of the task and the learner's skill level
  • Novice learners may initially benefit from some internal focus cues to establish basic movement patterns
• Potential ceiling effects in highly skilled performers
  • The benefits of an external focus may be less pronounced in experts who have already optimized their movement patterns
• Need for further research on the long-term retention and transfer of skills learned under different attentional focus conditions
  • Most studies have focused on immediate performance outcomes rather than long-term learning effects

Applying Attentional Focus Strategies

Instructional Strategies

• Prioritize the use of external focus instructions and feedback when teaching motor skills
  • Direct the learner's attention to the desired outcome or the effect of their movements on the environment ("Focus on the target," "Push against the ground")
• Use analogies or metaphors that promote an external focus of attention
  • "Imagine you are throwing a dart" for a basketball shot, "Pretend you are standing on a balance beam" for a balance task
• Avoid using internal focus cues or feedback that direct attention to specific body parts or movements
  • This may hinder performance and learning
• Provide clear and concise external focus instructions
  • Minimize extraneous information and ensure that the learner understands the desired outcome

Feedback and Cueing Techniques

• Emphasize external focus feedback that highlights the results of the learner's actions
  • "The ball landed two feet from the hole," "Your shot hit the top right corner of the target"
• Use visual aids or demonstrations that direct attention to the external effects of movements
  • Laser pointers, target lines, or video feedback showing the trajectory of an object
• Incorporate external focus cues into practice drills and training exercises
  • Set up targets, obstacles, or markers that encourage a focus on the environment
• Provide real-time feedback using technology or verbal cues that reinforce an external focus
  • Motion sensors, force plates, or verbal prompts that highlight the desired outcome

Individualizing Attentional Focus Strategies

• Consider the individual's preferences and experiences when implementing attentional focus strategies
  • Some learners may benefit from a combination of internal and external focus cues depending on the stage of learning and the complexity of the task
• Adapt the attentional focus instructions to the learner's skill level and progress
  • Novice learners may require more frequent and explicit external focus cues, while advanced learners may benefit from more subtle and implicit cues
• Monitor the learner's performance and adjust the attentional focus strategies accordingly
  • If the learner is struggling with an external focus, consider incorporating some internal focus cues to address specific technical issues
• Encourage learners to experiment with different attentional focus strategies during practice
  • Foster self-discovery and help learners identify the most effective focus for their individual needs