Regression metrics help us gauge how well our models predict outcomes. MSE, RMSE, and MAE measure prediction errors, while R-squared shows how much variation our model explains. These tools are crucial for evaluating and comparing regression models.

Understanding these metrics is key to assessing model performance in real-world scenarios. They help us identify which models are most accurate and reliable, guiding us in making better predictions and decisions based on our data.

Error Metrics

Measuring Prediction Errors

• Mean Squared Error (MSE) calculates the average squared difference between the predicted and actual values
  • Formula: $MSE = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} (y_i - \hat{y}_i)^2$
  • Squaring the errors amplifies larger errors and minimizes smaller ones
  • Sensitive to outliers due to the squaring of errors
• Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) takes the square root of the MSE to bring the units back to the original scale
  • Formula: $RMSE = \sqrt{MSE} = \sqrt{\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} (y_i - \hat{y}_i)^2}$
  • Easier to interpret than MSE as it is in the same units as the target variable
  • Still sensitive to outliers, but less so than MSE
• Mean Absolute Error (MAE) calculates the average absolute difference between the predicted and actual values
  • Formula: $MAE = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} |y_i - \hat{y}_i|$
  • Less sensitive to outliers compared to MSE and RMSE
  • Provides a more intuitive understanding of the average error magnitude

Percentage-based Error Metric

• Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) expresses the average absolute error as a percentage of the actual values
  • Formula: $MAPE = \frac{100%}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} |\frac{y_i - \hat{y}_i}{y_i}|$
  • Useful when the target variable has a wide range of values or when comparing models across different datasets
  • Can be misleading when actual values are close to zero, as it can lead to large percentage errors

Analyzing Model Residuals

• Residuals represent the differences between the predicted and actual values
  • Formula: $residual_i = y_i - \hat{y}_i$
  • Positive residuals indicate underestimation, while negative residuals indicate overestimation
  • Analyzing residuals helps assess model assumptions and identify patterns or biases in the predictions
  • Residual plots (residuals vs. predicted values) can reveal non-linear relationships or heteroscedasticity

Coefficient of Determination

Measuring Model Fit

• R-squared (Coefficient of Determination) measures the proportion of variance in the target variable explained by the model
  • Formula: $R^2 = 1 - \frac{SS_{res}}{SS_{tot}} = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n} (y_i - \hat{y}i)^2}{\sum{i=1}^{n} (y_i - \bar{y})^2}$
  • Ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating a better fit
  • Represents the improvement of the model compared to using the mean of the target variable as a prediction
  • Can be interpreted as the percentage of variance explained by the model (e.g., R-squared of 0.75 means 75% of the variance is explained)
• Adjusted R-squared penalizes the addition of unnecessary predictors to the model
  • Formula: $Adjusted R^2 = 1 - \frac{(1 - R^2)(n - 1)}{n - p - 1}$, where $p$ is the number of predictors
  • Useful for comparing models with different numbers of predictors
  • Prevents overfitting by discouraging the inclusion of irrelevant variables

Assessing Model Goodness of Fit

• Goodness of fit refers to how well the model fits the observed data
  • A high R-squared or adjusted R-squared indicates a good fit, meaning the model captures a significant portion of the variability in the target variable
  • However, a high R-squared does not necessarily imply a good model, as it can be affected by outliers or overfitting
  • It is important to consider other diagnostic measures (residual plots, cross-validation) alongside R-squared to assess model performance and validity