The transition from Old English to Middle English marked a pivotal shift in the English language. Influenced by the Norman Conquest, English underwent major changes in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. These changes laid the foundation for the language we speak today.

Middle English emerged as a distinct literary language, blending Old English with French influences. This period saw the rise of diverse literary forms, from religious texts to romances, reflecting the changing cultural landscape of medieval England.

Linguistic Changes

Simplification of Grammatical Structures

• Old English had a complex system of inflections indicating grammatical functions (case, number, gender) which were gradually lost during the Middle English period
• Nouns, adjectives, and determiners no longer changed their form to indicate grammatical function leading to a more analytic language structure
• Verbs underwent significant simplification with the loss of many inflectional endings (person, number) resulting in a more fixed word order
• Pronouns largely retained their inflectional system but with some simplification and standardization across dialects (loss of dual forms, merging of dative and accusative cases)

Evolving Word Order Patterns

• Old English had a relatively free word order due to the inflectional system which allowed for greater flexibility in sentence structure
• Loss of inflections necessitated a more fixed word order to convey grammatical relationships between words in a sentence
• Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) word order became increasingly common during the Middle English period replacing the Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) order prevalent in Old English
• Prepositions became more important for indicating relationships between words in a sentence as inflectional endings disappeared (to, for, by, with)

Shifting Spelling and Pronunciation Norms

• Spelling conventions in Old English were relatively consistent but varied significantly by region and dialect in Middle English
• Scribes often spelled words based on their local pronunciation leading to a wide variety of spellings for the same word (knight, kniht, cniht)
• Introduction of French scribal traditions influenced Middle English spelling with the use of 'qu' for /kw/ sounds (queen), 'ou' for /u/ sounds (house), and 'ch' for /ʧ/ sounds (child)
• The Great Vowel Shift, a major change in pronunciation, began in the late Middle English period and continued into the Early Modern period impacting the pronunciation of long vowels (time, house)

French Influence

Influx of French Vocabulary

• Norman Conquest of 1066 led to the adoption of many French words into the English language particularly in the domains of government, law, religion, fashion, and cuisine
• Approximately 10,000 French words entered the English language during the Middle English period many of which are still commonly used today (government, justice, religion, beef, pork, fashion)
• French words often existed alongside their Old English counterparts leading to synonyms with stylistic differences (kingly/royal, rise/mount, wish/desire)
• Borrowing of French affixes and prefixes expanded the English lexicon and allowed for the creation of new words (dis-, re-, -ance, -tion)

Linguistic Prestige and Bilingualism

• French became the language of the nobility, government, and the courts while English remained the language of the common people leading to a period of linguistic diglossia
• Bilingualism among the educated classes was common with French used for official purposes and English for everyday communication
• French was considered the more prestigious language and many French words associated with high culture, refinement, and sophistication entered the English language (cuisine, etiquette, siege, diplomat)
• The influence of French on English pronunciation can be seen in the use of stress-timed rhythm and the pronunciation of certain sounds (/ʒ/ as in vision, /ʃ/ as in nation)

Literary Developments

Emergence of Middle English Literature

• The earliest works in Middle English appeared in the 12th century marking a shift away from the literary traditions of Old English
• Religious works such as the Ormulum and the Ancrene Wisse were among the first texts written in Middle English and reflect the changing language and literary tastes of the period
• Secular works such as the Brut and the Owl and the Nightingale emerged in the 13th century and demonstrate the increasing use of English for literary purposes
• Middle English literature reached its height in the 14th century with the works of Geoffrey Chaucer, John Gower, and William Langland showcasing the literary potential of the vernacular

Diversity of Literary Forms and Genres

• Middle English literature encompassed a wide range of genres including religious texts, chronicles, romances, fabliaux, and allegorical works reflecting the diverse interests and tastes of medieval society
• Romances, such as the Arthurian legends and the Lais of Marie de France, were popular among the nobility and often featured themes of chivalry, courtly love, and adventure
• Fabliaux, short satirical tales often featuring bawdy humor and clever tricksters, were popular among the lower classes and reflect the earthy humor of medieval popular culture (The Miller's Tale, The Reeve's Tale)
• Allegorical works, such as the Roman de la Rose and Piers Plowman, use symbolism and personification to explore complex moral and philosophical themes and reflect the intellectual currents of the period