The Indus Valley Civilization flourished along the Indus River from 2600 to 1900 BCE. This advanced society boasted impressive cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, known for their grid-like layouts, sophisticated drainage systems, and the famous Great Bath.

Life in the Indus Valley was marked by social stratification, specialized crafts, and extensive trade networks. Religious practices likely included mother goddess worship and animal symbolism, as evidenced by terracotta figurines and intricate seals found at archaeological sites.

Geographic Scope and Key Cities of the Indus Valley

Extent and Timeframe

• The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, flourished in the Indus River basin from approximately 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE
• The civilization extended over a vast area, covering parts of present-day Pakistan, northwestern India, and eastern Afghanistan

Major Urban Centers

• Major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization include Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, and Dholavira
• Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were the two largest cities, acting as major urban centers of the civilization
  • Harappa, located in present-day Punjab, Pakistan, was one of the earliest and most important sites of the Indus Valley Civilization
  • Mohenjo-daro, located in Sindh, Pakistan, was a major urban center known for its advanced city planning and architectural features like the Great Bath
• The cities were strategically located along the Indus River and its tributaries, facilitating trade and agriculture
  • The Indus River provided a reliable source of water for irrigation and transportation
  • The river's fertile floodplains allowed for the cultivation of crops and supported a large population

Urban Planning and Architecture of the Indus Valley

City Layout and Structure

• Indus Valley cities were characterized by their advanced urban planning, with a grid-like layout and well-organized streets
• The cities were divided into two main sections: the citadel, which was built on a raised platform, and the lower town, where the majority of the population lived
  • The citadel likely served as an administrative, religious, or defensive center
  • The lower town consisted of residential buildings made of baked bricks, with standardized sizes and layouts
• The presence of granaries suggests a well-developed system for storing and distributing agricultural produce

Notable Architectural Features

• The citadel housed important public buildings, such as the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, which was a large, water-tight structure believed to have been used for ritual purification
  • The Great Bath measured approximately 12 meters by 7 meters and was lined with waterproof bricks
  • It had steps leading down into the pool from both ends and was surrounded by a colonnade of rooms
• The cities had sophisticated water management systems, including wells, bathrooms, and an extensive drainage network with covered drains running along the main streets
  • The drainage systems were constructed using carefully laid bricks and covered with stone slabs
  • The presence of private bathrooms and wells in many houses indicates a high standard of hygiene and sanitation

Social Structure and Economic Life in the Indus Valley

Social Stratification and Occupations

• The Indus Valley Civilization had a complex social structure, with evidence of social stratification based on occupation and wealth
• Craft specialization was evident, with the production of high-quality pottery, metalwork, and beads
  • Pottery was made using a variety of techniques, including hand-forming, wheel-throwing, and molding
  • Copper and bronze were used to create tools, weapons, and ornaments
  • Beads were made from a wide range of materials, including steatite, agate, and carnelian

Trade and Commerce

• The presence of seals, weights, and measures suggests a standardized system of trade and commerce
• The Indus Valley people engaged in long-distance trade with Mesopotamia and other regions, exporting goods such as cotton textiles, beads, and pottery
  • Evidence of Indus Valley seals and artifacts has been found in Mesopotamian cities like Ur and Susa
  • The Indus Valley Civilization imported raw materials like lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and carnelian from Gujarat
• Agriculture formed the backbone of the Indus Valley economy, with the cultivation of crops such as wheat, barley, peas, and sesame
• The use of standardized weights and measures indicates a centralized control over the economy and trade

Religious Practices of the Indus Valley People

Terracotta Figurines and Mother Goddess Worship

• The discovery of numerous terracotta figurines, some of which depict female figures, suggests the worship of a mother goddess or fertility deity
  • The most famous of these figurines is the "Dancing Girl" of Mohenjo-daro, a small bronze statue depicting a female figure with elaborate jewelry
  • Other terracotta figurines depict women wearing elaborate headdresses and jewelry, possibly representing goddesses or religious figures

Animal Symbolism and Iconography

• Seals depicting animals, such as the unicorn and the bull, suggest the importance of animal symbolism in Indus Valley religion
  • The "Pashupati Seal" from Mohenjo-daro depicts a seated figure surrounded by animals, possibly representing a proto-Shiva or a lord of animals
  • The unicorn, a mythical animal with a single horn, is a common motif on Indus Valley seals and may have held religious or symbolic significance
• The presence of the "Priest-King" statue and other sculptural representations indicate the existence of religious or political leaders

Role of Water and Cleanliness in Rituals

• The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro and the presence of wells and drains in houses point to the significance of water and cleanliness in religious rituals
• The absence of large temples or monumental religious structures, as compared to other ancient civilizations, has led to debates about the nature of Indus Valley religion
  • Some scholars suggest that religious practices may have been more personal or household-based rather than centered around large public temples
  • Others argue that the absence of identifiable religious structures may be due to the limitations of archaeological evidence and the lack of deciphered written records