Skinner's operant conditioning theory revolutionized our understanding of how behavior is shaped by consequences. It explains why we repeat actions that lead to rewards and avoid those that result in punishment, forming the basis for many modern behavior modification techniques.

Unlike classical conditioning, which deals with involuntary responses, operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors. This theory has wide-ranging applications, from animal training to human learning, and continues to influence fields like psychology, education, and even business management.

Operant Conditioning Basics

Fundamental Concepts

• Operant conditioning focuses on how consequences influence voluntary behavior and the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future
• Operant behavior refers to actions that operate on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing consequences (pressing a lever)
• Voluntary behavior in operant conditioning is not reflexive and instead is controlled by its consequences (choosing to study for a test)
• Behavioral consequences, whether reinforcing or punishing, determine the probability of a behavior being repeated or suppressed

Comparison to Classical Conditioning

• Unlike classical conditioning which deals with involuntary reflexive behaviors, operant conditioning examines the relationship between voluntary behaviors and their consequences
• Classical conditioning involves an association between stimuli while operant conditioning involves an association between a behavior and its consequences
• In operant conditioning, the organism plays an active role in producing the consequences that shape its behavior (exploring the environment)

Experimental Apparatus

Skinner Box

• The Skinner Box is an experimental chamber used to study operant conditioning principles in animals (rats, pigeons)
• It typically contains a lever or key that the animal can manipulate to obtain a reinforcer such as food or avoid a punisher such as an electric shock
• The Skinner Box allows researchers to precisely control the environment and measure the animal's rate of responding

Stimulus Control and Response Rate

• Stimulus control occurs when a particular stimulus or set of stimuli come to reliably elicit a specific operant response due to a history of reinforcement (a green light signaling the availability of food)
• The response rate, or the frequency of an operant behavior, can be influenced by the schedule of reinforcement in effect (a variable ratio schedule produces a high, steady response rate)
• Researchers use the Skinner Box to investigate how different schedules of reinforcement and discriminative stimuli affect the acquisition, maintenance, and extinction of operant behaviors

Reinforcement Principles

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

• Positive reinforcement involves presenting a rewarding stimulus after a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again (receiving praise for a job well done)
• Negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior, also increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again (taking an aspirin to relieve a headache)
• Both positive and negative reinforcement strengthen the preceding behavior, but differ in whether a stimulus is added or removed

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement provides reinforcement after every instance of the target behavior, leading to quick acquisition but also rapid extinction when reinforcement is discontinued
• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement provides reinforcement only after some instances of the target behavior, leading to slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction
• Fixed ratio schedules provide reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (every 10th response), while variable ratio schedules provide reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (on average, every 10th response)
• Fixed interval schedules provide reinforcement for the first response after a fixed time interval (every 60 seconds), while variable interval schedules provide reinforcement for the first response after an unpredictable time interval (on average, every 60 seconds)