Scalar implicatures and Horn scales are key concepts in pragmatics. They show how we communicate more than what we explicitly say, using weaker terms to imply stronger alternatives don't apply. This allows for efficient, nuanced communication.

Generalized conversational implicatures are inferences that arise from common language patterns. They're based on the assumption that speakers follow cooperative principles, allowing hearers to glean additional meaning beyond literal words. This demonstrates language's implicit richness.

Scalar Implicatures and Horn Scales

Scalar implicatures in communication

• Type of conversational implicature arises when speaker uses weaker term from scale of alternatives (some, most, all)
• Implies stronger alternatives do not hold ("Some students passed" implicates "Not all students passed")
• Conveys additional meaning beyond literal semantics allows speakers to communicate more than explicitly stated
• Hearers infer intended meaning based on choice of scalar term used

Horn scales and scalar implicatures

• Sets of linguistic alternatives ordered by entailment or implication (warm, hot, boiling)
• Provide alternatives for generating implicatures when speaker uses weaker term implies negation of stronger alternatives
• Based on Gricean maxim of Quantity speakers should provide as much information as necessary but not more

Generalized Conversational Implicatures

Patterns of generalized conversational implicatures

• Implicatures arise in absence of special context associated with certain linguistic forms or patterns
• Conjunctions: "P and Q" implicates temporal or causal relation (I got dressed and went to work)
• Possessives: "John's car" implicates ownership
• Indefinite articles: "A student called" implicates unfamiliarity to speaker or hearer
• Defeasible can be cancelled or overridden by additional context

Pragmatic reasoning for implicatures

• Arise from cooperative principle and Gricean maxims
  1. Quantity: Be as informative as required but not more
  2. Quality: Be truthful and have evidence
  3. Relation: Be relevant
  4. Manner: Be clear, brief, and orderly
• Hearers assume speakers are cooperative and following maxims
• Inferences made by considering alternatives speaker could have used but did not
• Choice of weaker term or specific pattern implies negation of stronger alternatives or additional meaning (picked the red dress over the blue one)