Communication models and theories form the backbone of understanding how information flows in society. From linear models to more complex theories, these concepts explain how messages are transmitted and received.

Media effects theories dive deeper, exploring how mass communication impacts audiences. They examine agenda-setting, cultivation, and audience-centered approaches, shedding light on the complex relationship between media and society.

Communication Models

Linear Models of Communication

• Shannon-Weaver Model depicts communication as a linear, one-way process (sender encodes message, transmits through channel, receiver decodes)
• Model includes concepts of noise (physical, semantic, psychological) that can disrupt the communication process
• Lasswell's Model also portrays communication as a linear process answering who (communicator) says what (message) in which channel (medium) to whom (receiver) with what effect (impact)
• Linear models focus on the transmission of messages and view communication as a one-way process rather than an interactive exchange

Two-Step Flow Theory

• Suggests that information from the media moves in two distinct stages:
  1. From the mass media to opinion leaders
  2. From opinion leaders to the wider population
• Opinion leaders pay close attention to mass media and pass on their interpretation of media messages to others
• Recognizes that the media does not have a direct, hypodermic effect on audiences but is rather mediated through opinion leaders and social relationships
• Highlights the importance of interpersonal networks in the communication process (friends, family, coworkers)

Diffusion of Innovations

• Explains how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures and social systems over time
• The spread of a new idea is influenced by four main elements: the innovation itself, communication channels, time, and a social system
• Adopters of innovations can be categorized based on how early or late they adopt the new idea (innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards)
• The rate of adoption follows an S-shaped curve with slow initial growth, followed by rapid growth, then a leveling off as the innovation reaches saturation in the social system

Media Effects Theories

Theories on Media Influence

• Agenda-Setting Theory proposes that the media sets the public agenda by focusing attention on certain issues while ignoring others
  • Tells us what to think about, not necessarily what to think
  • The more attention the media gives an issue, the more importance the public attributes to it
• Cultivation Theory suggests that heavy exposure to media, specifically television, shapes viewers' perceptions of social reality over time
  • Heavy TV viewers are more likely to perceive the world as resembling the one depicted on television (mean world syndrome)
  • Argues that media has long-term, gradual effects on attitudes rather than immediate, direct impacts

Audience-Centered Theories

• Uses and Gratifications Theory focuses on how and why people use media to satisfy their specific needs and desires
  • Assumes audiences are active and goal-oriented in their media use (information, entertainment, social interaction, personal identity)
  • Emphasizes what people do with media rather than what media does to people
• Spiral of Silence posits that people are less likely to voice opinions they perceive to be in the minority due to fear of isolation or reprisal
  • Media coverage of opinion trends can influence people's willingness to express their views if they believe they hold a minority opinion
  • Over time, minority opinions may be suppressed entirely, reinforcing the perceived majority opinion and silencing alternative views