The 20th century brought radical changes to classical music, reflecting broader shifts in society and culture. Composers explored new techniques, abandoning traditional tonality and embracing dissonance, electronic sounds, and unconventional forms.

This period saw diverse styles emerge, from Impressionism to Serialism to Minimalism. Key figures like Stravinsky, Schoenberg, and Cage pushed boundaries, while world events and technological advances shaped the musical landscape.

Historical context of 20th-century music

• 20th-century classical music emerged as a response to societal changes, technological advancements, and artistic innovations
• This period in music history reflects broader cultural shifts in the humanities, challenging traditional forms and exploring new modes of expression

Late Romanticism vs Modernism

• Late Romanticism characterized by emotional expressiveness and expanded tonality (Wagner, Mahler)
• Modernism rejected Romantic ideals, embraced dissonance and experimentation (Schoenberg, Stravinsky)
• Shift from tonal hierarchies to atonal structures and new compositional techniques
• Modernist composers explored unconventional harmonies and rhythms to reflect the changing world

Impact of world wars

• World War I led to disillusionment and a search for new artistic languages
• Composers responded to the trauma of war through darker, more introspective works (Britten's War Requiem)
• World War II caused migration of European composers to America, influencing musical cross-pollination
• Post-war period saw rise of avant-garde movements and electronic experimentation

Technological advancements in music

• Invention of phonograph and radio transformed music dissemination and consumption
• Electronic instruments like theremin and ondes Martenot expanded timbral possibilities
• Magnetic tape allowed for musique concrète and electronic music composition (Stockhausen)
• Computer technology led to algorithmic composition and new forms of sound synthesis

Major compositional styles

• 20th-century classical music witnessed a proliferation of diverse compositional approaches
• These styles reflect the broader artistic and philosophical movements of the time, showcasing the interconnectedness of music with other humanities disciplines

Impressionism and symbolism

• Emerged in France as a reaction against German Romanticism
• Characterized by subtle harmonies, exotic scales, and atmospheric textures
• Debussy's "Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune" exemplifies impressionistic style
• Symbolist poetry influenced composers to evoke moods and sensations rather than concrete narratives

Expressionism and atonality

• Developed in early 20th-century Vienna, reflecting psychological and emotional intensity
• Atonality abandoned traditional tonal centers and hierarchies
• Schoenberg's "Pierrot Lunaire" showcases expressionist vocal techniques (Sprechstimme)
• Explored extreme dissonance and unconventional instrumental techniques to convey inner turmoil

Neoclassicism and primitivism

• Neoclassicism revived elements of 18th-century classical forms and aesthetics
• Stravinsky's "Pulcinella" reimagined Baroque music with modern harmonies and orchestration
• Primitivism drew inspiration from non-Western and folk music traditions
• Bartók's incorporation of Hungarian folk melodies exemplifies primitivist tendencies

Serialism and twelve-tone technique

• Developed by Schoenberg as a systematic approach to atonal composition
• Based on ordering all 12 chromatic pitches in a fixed series or "row"
• Webern's concise, pointillistic style epitomizes total serialism
• Expanded beyond pitch to include serialization of rhythm, dynamics, and timbre

Minimalism and postminimalism

• Emerged in 1960s America as a reaction against complexity of serialism
• Characterized by repetitive patterns, gradual processes, and tonal harmonies
• Steve Reich's "Music for 18 Musicians" showcases minimalist phasing techniques
• Postminimalism incorporated minimalist elements with more diverse influences and structures

Influential composers and works

• 20th-century classical music was shaped by innovative composers who pushed boundaries
• These figures contributed to the evolution of musical language and expanded the possibilities of sound

Debussy and Ravel

• Claude Debussy pioneered impressionist techniques in music
• "La Mer" demonstrates Debussy's use of whole-tone scales and innovative orchestration
• Maurice Ravel refined impressionist style with precise craftsmanship
• Ravel's "Boléro" explores orchestral color through gradual instrumental buildup

Schoenberg and Berg

• Arnold Schoenberg developed atonal and twelve-tone composition methods
• "Verklärte Nacht" shows Schoenberg's transition from late Romanticism to atonality
• Alban Berg combined twelve-tone technique with Romantic expressiveness
• Berg's opera "Wozzeck" integrates atonal techniques with dramatic storytelling

Stravinsky and Bartók

• Igor Stravinsky revolutionized rhythm and orchestration in early 20th century
• "The Rite of Spring" caused a scandal with its primal rhythms and dissonant harmonies
• Béla Bartók incorporated folk music elements into modernist compositions
• Bartók's "Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta" showcases innovative use of symmetry and form

Copland and Bernstein

• Aaron Copland created a distinctly American classical music style
• "Appalachian Spring" exemplifies Copland's accessible modernism and use of folk themes
• Leonard Bernstein bridged classical and popular music traditions
• Bernstein's "West Side Story" integrates complex rhythms and harmonies into musical theater

Reich and Glass

• Steve Reich pioneered minimalist techniques like phasing and pulse patterns
• Reich's "Different Trains" combines recorded speech with live instruments
• Philip Glass developed additive and subtractive processes in minimalist composition
• Glass's opera "Einstein on the Beach" reimagines operatic form through minimalist structures

Innovations in musical elements

• 20th-century composers radically reimagined fundamental aspects of music
• These innovations reflect broader cultural shifts towards abstraction and experimentation in the arts

Rhythm and meter

• Exploration of complex and irregular time signatures (Stravinsky's "The Rite of Spring")
• Polyrhythms and cross-rhythms became more prevalent in Western classical music
• Composers like Messiaen developed systems of rhythmic modes and additive rhythms
• Minimalist composers explored phasing and gradual rhythmic processes

Harmony and tonality

• Expansion of tonality through use of extended chords and non-functional harmony
• Development of atonal and pantonal approaches to pitch organization
• Microtonality and alternative tuning systems explored by composers like Harry Partch
• Spectral music focused on manipulation of overtone series and timbral harmony

Timbre and orchestration

• Expansion of percussion section and use of extended instrumental techniques
• Incorporation of non-Western instruments into orchestral settings
• Exploration of electronic and synthesized sounds in composition
• Prepared instruments and unconventional sound sources (John Cage's prepared piano)

Form and structure

• Abandonment of traditional forms like sonata and symphony in favor of freer structures
• Aleatoric or chance-based compositional methods introduced by John Cage
• Open form and modular compositions allowing for performer interpretation
• Use of mathematical and algorithmic processes to generate musical structures

Cultural and social impacts

• 20th-century classical music both reflected and influenced broader cultural trends
• These developments showcase the interconnectedness of music with social and political movements

Nationalism in music

• Composers incorporated folk melodies and rhythms to express national identity
• Bartók's ethnomusicological research influenced his compositions
• Shostakovich's symphonies reflected complex relationship with Soviet regime
• Latin American composers like Villa-Lobos blended indigenous and European traditions

Jazz influence on classical

• Incorporation of jazz harmonies and rhythms in classical compositions
• Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue" bridged classical and jazz idioms
• Third Stream music aimed to fuse jazz improvisation with classical structures
• Composers like Bernstein and Milhaud drew inspiration from jazz in their works

Electronic and experimental music

• Development of electronic instruments and tape music studios
• Stockhausen's "Gesang der Jünglinge" combined electronic sounds with vocal recordings
• John Cage's "4'33"" challenged notions of music and silence
• Computer-assisted composition and live electronic performance techniques emerged

Avant-garde and performance art

• Fluxus movement blurred boundaries between music, visual art, and theater
• Cage's "Water Walk" incorporated everyday objects and actions into musical performance
• La Monte Young's extended duration pieces explored limits of perception
• Multimedia and interdisciplinary collaborations became more prevalent

Reception and criticism

• 20th-century classical music often faced polarized reactions from audiences and critics
• These responses reflect broader debates about tradition and innovation in the arts

Academic vs popular reception

• Academic institutions embraced experimental music more readily than general public
• Serialist and avant-garde works often appreciated more by specialists than casual listeners
• Some composers like Copland and Britten aimed for wider accessibility
• Tension between intellectual complexity and emotional communication in new music

Challenges to traditional aesthetics

• Rejection of beauty and pleasure as primary goals of music
• Emphasis on concept and process over traditional notions of melody and harmony
• Cage's aleatory music challenged ideas of composer control and intentionality
• Minimalism's repetitive structures contrasted with expectations of constant development

Legacy and influence on later music

• 20th-century techniques continue to influence contemporary classical composition
• Popular music genres like progressive rock and electronic dance music drew from avant-garde ideas
• Film and video game music incorporated modernist harmonies and textures
• Postmodern composers freely mix elements from various 20th-century styles and earlier periods

Key musical institutions

• Institutions played a crucial role in shaping the development and dissemination of 20th-century music
• These organizations reflect the changing relationship between composers, performers, and audiences

Conservatories and academies

• Traditional conservatories adapted curricula to include modern compositional techniques
• Specialized electronic music studios established at institutions (Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center)
• Summer schools and festivals provided platforms for new music (Darmstadt International Summer Courses)
• Academic positions allowed composers to experiment with less commercial pressure

Concert halls and festivals

• Purpose-built venues for electronic and experimental music emerged
• IRCAM in Paris became a center for computer music research and performance
• Festivals like Warsaw Autumn and Donaueschingen showcased avant-garde works
• Some traditional concert halls struggled to attract audiences for challenging new music

Recording industry developments

• Improved recording technology allowed for more accurate reproduction of complex works
• Specialized labels like Nonesuch and ECM promoted contemporary classical music
• Advent of LPs and later CDs enabled release of longer, more experimental pieces
• Digital distribution and streaming have made obscure 20th-century works more accessible

Interdisciplinary connections

• 20th-century classical music often engaged with other art forms and intellectual disciplines
• These connections highlight the broader cultural context of musical developments

Music and visual arts

• Wassily Kandinsky's abstract paintings inspired by musical structures
• John Cage collaborated with visual artists in multimedia "Happenings"
• Graphic notation explored visual representation of unconventional sounds
• Iannis Xenakis applied architectural principles to musical composition

Literature and philosophy influences

• Schoenberg's expressionist works influenced by Freudian psychoanalysis
• Existentialist philosophy reflected in post-war avant-garde music
• Umberto Eco's concepts of "open work" applied to indeterminate compositions
• Postmodern literary techniques mirrored in musical collage and quotation

Film scores and incidental music

• Modernist techniques incorporated into Hollywood film scores (Bernard Herrmann)
• Avant-garde composers created experimental soundtracks (Edgard Varèse for "Déserts")
• Minimalist music found application in film (Philip Glass's score for "Koyaanisqatsi")
• Concert works inspired by cinematic techniques (Ligeti's "Atmosphères" used in "2001: A Space Odyssey")