The Roman Republic emerged in 509 BCE, replacing the monarchy with elected officials and checks and balances. This new system featured consuls as chief executives, a powerful Senate, and tribunes representing the plebeians, all working to prevent any one person from gaining too much power.

The republic's foundation rested on key institutions and traditions. The cursus honorum guided political careers, while the Twelve Tables and mos maiorum established legal and moral frameworks. Social divisions between patricians and plebeians gradually blurred as plebeians gained more rights through political struggles.

Government Structure

Executive and Legislative Branches

• Roman Republic established after the overthrow of the monarchy in 509 BCE, creating a system of elected officials and checks and balances
• Consuls were the highest elected officials in the Roman Republic, serving as the chief executives and military commanders with a one-year term limit
  • Two consuls were elected annually to prevent any one individual from gaining too much power
  • Consuls had the power to convene the Senate, propose legislation, and command armies
• Senate was the most powerful institution in the Roman Republic, consisting of wealthy and influential citizens who served as advisors to the consuls and made important decisions regarding foreign policy, finance, and legislation
  • Membership in the Senate was initially limited to patricians but later opened to wealthy plebeians
  • Senators served for life, providing stability and continuity in government
• Tribunes were elected officials who represented the interests of the plebeians and had the power to veto legislation and decisions made by the consuls and Senate
  • Tribunes were sacrosanct, meaning they could not be harmed or interfered with while in office
  • The office of tribune was created as a concession to the plebeians during the Conflict of the Orders (Struggle of the Orders)

Political Career Path

• Cursus honorum was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in the Roman Republic, designed to prevent any one individual from gaining too much power too quickly
  • The cursus honorum typically included the offices of quaestor, aedile, praetor, and consul, each with its own minimum age requirement and responsibilities
  • Aspiring politicians were required to serve in the military for at least ten years before entering the cursus honorum
• Comitia were the popular assemblies of the Roman Republic, consisting of the Comitia Centuriata (Assembly of the Centuries), Comitia Tributa (Tribal Assembly), and Comitia Curiata (Assembly of the Curiae)
  • The Comitia Centuriata was the most important assembly, responsible for electing consuls, praetors, and censors, as well as declaring war and passing legislation
  • The Comitia Tributa elected lower magistrates and passed legislation
  • The Comitia Curiata was the oldest assembly and had largely ceremonial functions by the time of the Roman Republic

Legal System and Traditions

Foundational Laws and Customs

• Twelve Tables were the first written laws of the Roman Republic, created in 451-450 BCE as a result of the plebeians' demands for greater legal protection and equality
  • The Twelve Tables codified existing customary laws and established the principle of equality before the law for all Roman citizens
  • The laws covered a wide range of topics, including property rights, family law, and criminal law
• Mos maiorum referred to the unwritten customs, traditions, and moral principles that guided Roman society and government
  • The mos maiorum emphasized virtues such as honor, courage, loyalty, and piety
  • Adherence to the mos maiorum was considered essential for maintaining social order and stability

Magisterial Powers

• Imperium was the supreme executive power held by consuls, praetors, and dictators in the Roman Republic
  • Imperium granted the holder the authority to command armies, administer justice, and enforce laws
  • The level of imperium varied depending on the office held, with consuls and dictators holding the highest level (imperium maius)
• Veto power was the authority held by tribunes to intercede and block the actions of other magistrates, including consuls and praetors
  • The veto power was a critical check on the power of the patrician-dominated government and helped to protect the interests of the plebeians
  • Tribunes could use their veto power to block legislation, prevent the arrest of citizens, and even stop the mobilization of armies

Social Classes

Patricians and Plebeians

• Patricians were the wealthy, aristocratic class in Roman society, holding a monopoly on political power in the early Roman Republic
  • Patricians traced their lineage back to the founding families of Rome and held exclusive religious and political privileges
  • Patrician families often had extensive land holdings and controlled the Senate and other important institutions
• Plebeians constituted the majority of the Roman population, including farmers, artisans, and merchants
  • Plebeians initially had limited political rights and were excluded from holding high office in the early Roman Republic
  • The Conflict of the Orders (Struggle of the Orders) was a long series of political and social struggles between the patricians and plebeians, resulting in the gradual extension of political rights to the plebeians
    • Key victories for the plebeians included the creation of the office of tribune (494 BCE), the codification of Roman law in the Twelve Tables (451-450 BCE), and the opening of the consulship to plebeians (367 BCE)
  • By the late Roman Republic, wealthy plebeians had gained access to the Senate and other high offices, blurring the distinction between the two classes