Psychodynamic and cognitive theories offer fascinating insights into human development across the lifespan. From Freud's psychosexual stages to Erikson's psychosocial crises, these models explain how early experiences shape our personalities and relationships.

Piaget and Kohlberg further illuminate cognitive and moral growth from childhood to adulthood. While each theory has limitations, together they provide a rich framework for understanding the complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors in human development.

Psychodynamic and Cognitive Lifespan Theories

Freud's psychosexual stages

• Oral stage (0-18 months)
  • Infant derives pleasure from oral activities (sucking, biting)
  • Fixation can lead to oral personality traits (smoking, overeating, nail-biting)
• Anal stage (18-36 months)
  • Child learns to control bladder and bowel movements
  • Fixation can result in anal-retentive (overly organized, stingy) or anal-expulsive (messy, defiant) traits
• Phallic stage (3-6 years)
  • Child's pleasure focuses on genitals, curiosity about sexual differences
  • Oedipus complex (boys) and Electra complex (girls) develop, involving unconscious desire for opposite-sex parent
  • Fixation can lead to sexual deviations, overcompensation (machismo in males)
• Latency stage (6 years to puberty)
  • Sexual interests are repressed, redirected to social and intellectual pursuits
  • Child develops same-sex friendships, hobbies, academic skills
• Genital stage (puberty to adulthood)
  • Sexual interests mature, directed towards opposite-sex peers
  • Healthy resolution of earlier stages leads to well-adjusted personality, capacity for intimacy and commitment

Erikson's psychosocial development stages

• Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months)
  • Infant learns to trust caregivers who provide consistent, responsive care
  • Develops sense of safety, optimism vs. fear, suspicion if needs not met
  • Forms secure or insecure attachment patterns (attachment theory)
• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months-3 years)
  • Toddler gains independence through self-feeding, toilet training, exploring
  • Develops self-confidence vs. self-doubt, shame if overly controlled
• Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years)
  • Preschooler initiates activities, asserts power over environment
  • Develops sense of purpose vs. guilt over misbehavior, jealousy of siblings
• Industry vs. Inferiority (5-12 years)
  • School-age child develops competence through academic, social skills
  • Gains self-efficacy vs. feelings of inferiority if struggles in school, with peers
• Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years)
  • Adolescent explores, commits to personal identity (career, relationships, beliefs)
  • Achieves coherent sense of self vs. confusion over roles, future path
• Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40 years)
  • Young adult forms close friendships, romantic partnerships
  • Develops capacity for intimacy vs. isolation if fears commitment, rejection
• Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 years)
  • Middle-aged adult nurtures family, contributes to community
  • Achieves sense of productivity, care vs. self-absorption, lack of purpose
• Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years)
  • Older adult reflects on life, accepts triumphs and regrets
  • Attains wisdom, fulfillment vs. bitterness, despair over unachieved goals

Cognitive and Moral Development Theories

Piaget's cognitive development theory

• Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)
  • Infant explores world through senses, motor actions (looking, grasping)
  • Develops object permanence - understanding that objects exist when unseen
• Preoperational stage (2-7 years)
  • Child uses language, symbols (words, numbers) to represent objects
  • Engages in pretend play but thinking is egocentric, animistic (attributes life to inanimate objects)
• Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
  • Child reasons logically about concrete events, objects
  • Grasps conservation (amount stays same despite changes in appearance), reversibility (actions can be undone)
• Formal operational stage (11+ years)
  • Adolescent/adult reasons abstractly, considers hypotheticals
  • Engages in systematic problem-solving, scientific reasoning

Kohlberg's moral reasoning levels

• Preconventional level
  1. Obedience and punishment orientation - avoids punishment, defers to authority
  2. Instrumental purpose and exchange - follows rules for personal reward
• Conventional level 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity - conforms to social norms, seeks approval 4. Social accord and system maintenance - upholds laws, respects authority
• Postconventional level 5. Social contract, utility, individual rights - values democratically agreed-upon rules, individual liberties 6. Universal ethical principles - follows internalized, universal principles of justice, human rights

Contributions vs limitations of development theories

• Freud's psychosexual theory
  • Contributions: Highlighted role of early experiences, unconscious in personality development
  • Limitations: Overemphasized sexual drives, lacked empirical support, male-centric
• Erikson's psychosocial theory
  • Contributions: Expanded Freud's ideas, emphasized social influences across lifespan
  • Limitations: Vague on causes of development, may not apply cross-culturally
• Piaget's cognitive theory
  • Contributions: Mapped cognitive development, explained assimilation and accommodation processes
  • Limitations: Underestimated children's abilities, minimized individual differences and social/cultural influences
• Kohlberg's moral theory
  • Contributions: Charted progression of moral reasoning from childhood to adulthood
  • Limitations: Ignored emotional, situational factors; Western-centric; may not apply equally across genders

Developmental Influences and Support

• Nature vs. nurture debate: Considers the relative impact of genetics and environment on development
• Developmental milestones: Key skills or behaviors expected at certain ages, used to track typical development
• Scaffolding: Process where adults provide temporary support to help children master new skills, gradually reducing assistance as competence increases
• Sociocultural theory: Emphasizes the role of culture and social interactions in cognitive development, highlighting the importance of guided learning experiences