Operant conditioning shapes behavior through consequences. It's like training a dog: rewarding good behavior makes it more likely, while punishing bad behavior makes it less likely. This powerful learning method applies to humans too, influencing our actions in everyday life.

Reinforcement and punishment come in different forms, each with unique effects. Understanding these principles helps us modify behavior effectively, whether in parenting, education, or self-improvement. Reinforcement schedules also play a crucial role in determining how quickly behaviors are learned and how resistant they are to change.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning principles

• Type of learning where behavior is modified by its consequences, either reinforcing (increasing behavior) or punishing (decreasing behavior)
• Reinforcement strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again
  • Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus after a behavior (giving a dog a treat for sitting on command)
  • Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus after a behavior (fastening a seat belt to stop the annoying beeping sound in a car)
• Punishment weakens or decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again
  • Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus after a behavior (scolding a child for misbehaving)
  • Negative punishment removes a pleasant stimulus after a behavior (taking away a teenager's phone privileges for breaking curfew)
• Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, leading to a decrease in the behavior (ignoring a child's tantrum until it stops)
  • Spontaneous recovery may occur when an extinguished behavior temporarily reappears after a period of time

Reinforcement vs punishment techniques

• Reinforcement techniques reward desired behavior
  • Positive reinforcement rewards with a pleasant stimulus (bonus for meeting sales targets)
  • Negative reinforcement rewards by removing an aversive stimulus (taking a pain reliever to alleviate a headache)
• Punishment techniques discourage undesired behavior
  • Positive punishment presents an aversive stimulus (assigning extra homework for talking in class)
  • Negative punishment removes a pleasant stimulus (losing recess privileges for not completing assignments)
• Shaping is a technique used to teach complex behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior

Effects of reinforcement schedules

• Continuous reinforcement reinforces a behavior every time it occurs
  • Leads to rapid learning but also rapid extinction when reinforcement stops (a rat learning to press a lever for food pellets)
• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement reinforces a behavior only some of the time
  • Results in slower learning but greater resistance to extinction (a gambler continuing to play despite infrequent wins)
• Partial reinforcement schedules:
  1. Fixed ratio (FR) provides reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (earning a free coffee after purchasing 10)
  2. Variable ratio (VR) provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (fishing and catching a fish after a random number of casts)
  3. Fixed interval (FI) provides reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has passed (receiving a paycheck every two weeks)
  4. Variable interval (VI) provides reinforcement after an unpredictable amount of time has passed (a car salesperson making a sale after a random amount of time between customers)

Stimulus Control and Generalization

• Discriminative stimulus is a cue that signals when a behavior is likely to be reinforced (e.g., a green traffic light indicating it's safe to drive)
• Generalization occurs when a learned response is applied to similar stimuli or situations
• B.F. Skinner developed the operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box) to study these principles in animals