Pre-Columbian societies developed impressive technologies and agricultural practices. From the Three Sisters planting method to advanced irrigation systems, Native Americans maximized crop yields and sustainability. These innovations supported large populations and complex civilizations across the Americas.

Trade networks and infrastructure further connected diverse cultures. Long-distance exchange of goods and ideas flourished, while monumental architecture like Cahokia's Monks Mound and the Inca road system showcased engineering prowess. These achievements laid the foundation for thriving pre-Columbian societies.

Agriculture and Farming

Advanced Cultivation Techniques

• Three Sisters agriculture combined corn, beans, and squash in a symbiotic planting system
  • Corn provided support for climbing bean vines
  • Beans fixed nitrogen in the soil, benefiting the other plants
  • Squash spread along the ground, suppressing weeds and retaining soil moisture
• Irrigation systems channeled water from rivers and streams to crops
  • Aztecs developed chinampas (artificial islands) in shallow lakes for year-round farming
  • Hohokam people in present-day Arizona created extensive canal networks spanning hundreds of miles
• Terrace farming transformed steep hillsides into arable land
  • Inca built stone-walled terraces on Andean mountainsides
  • Terraces prevented soil erosion and maximized limited agricultural space
  • Allowed cultivation of diverse crops at different elevations (potatoes, quinoa, maize)

Agricultural Innovations and Crop Diversity

• Selective breeding improved crop yields and resilience
  • Native Americans developed thousands of corn varieties adapted to different climates
  • Domesticated wild plants like tomatoes, peppers, and peanuts
• Crop rotation and intercropping practices maintained soil fertility
  • Alternated nitrogen-fixing plants with heavy feeders
  • Planted complementary crops together to maximize land use and deter pests
• Utilized natural fertilizers to enrich soil
  • Composted organic matter and animal manure improved soil structure
  • Some cultures used fish or shellfish remains as fertilizer

Craftsmanship and Tools

Stone and Metalworking Technologies

• Obsidian tools prized for their extreme sharpness and versatility
  • Aztecs crafted atlatls (spear-throwers) with obsidian points for hunting and warfare
  • Mayans created intricate ceremonial blades and mirrors from obsidian
• Copper mining and metalworking emerged in North America around 4000 BCE
  • Native peoples of the Great Lakes region cold-hammered copper into tools and ornaments
  • Andes civilizations developed sophisticated copper alloys, including bronze
• Stone carving techniques produced monumental sculptures and intricate jewelry
  • Olmecs carved colossal stone heads weighing up to 50 tons
  • Aztec artisans created elaborate calendar stones and sacrificial altars

Artistic and Practical Crafts

• Pottery served both utilitarian and ceremonial purposes
  • Puebloan peoples of the Southwest United States developed distinctive black-on-white pottery
  • Moche culture of Peru created portrait vessels depicting individuals and deities
• Weaving techniques produced textiles for clothing, trade, and religious purposes
  • Inca wove fine cloth from alpaca and vicuña wool using backstrap looms
  • Navajo developed intricate geometric patterns in their blankets and rugs
• Canoe building techniques varied by region and available materials
  • Pacific Northwest tribes crafted dugout canoes from massive cedar logs
  • Eastern Woodland peoples constructed birchbark canoes, lightweight and portable
• Featherwork artistry created elaborate headdresses and cloaks
  • Aztec rulers wore resplendent cloaks made from thousands of tropical bird feathers
  • Amazonian tribes crafted intricate feather mosaics for ceremonial use

Trade and Infrastructure

Expansive Trade Networks

• Trade routes connected diverse regions and cultures across the Americas
  • Hopewell Interaction Sphere linked communities from the Great Lakes to the Gulf Coast
  • Inca road system stretched over 25,000 miles, facilitating trade and communication
• Long-distance trade in luxury goods and raw materials
  • Turquoise from the American Southwest reached Mesoamerica
  • Shells from the Pacific Coast found in the Eastern Woodlands
• Standardized trade items served as currency in some regions
  • Cacao beans used as currency in Mesoamerican markets
  • Wampum belts of shell beads served as currency and record-keeping devices in Eastern North America

Monumental Architecture and Engineering

• Mound building traditions spanned thousands of years and diverse cultures
  • Poverty Point in Louisiana featured massive earthen mounds and ridges circa 1700 BCE
  • Cahokia in Illinois, largest pre-Columbian city north of Mexico, centered around 100-foot Monks Mound
• Advanced urban planning in major civilizations
  • Teotihuacan in central Mexico housed over 100,000 people in a grid-like city plan
  • Machu Picchu demonstrated Inca mastery of stone construction and water management
• Astronomical observatories and calendrical structures
  • Maya built El Caracol at Chichen Itza to track celestial movements
  • Aztec Templo Mayor aligned with important astronomical events
• Transportation infrastructure facilitated trade and communication
  • Inca suspension bridges spanned deep gorges in the Andes
  • Maya constructed raised limestone causeways (sacbeob) to connect cities