Nationalism emerged as a powerful force in 19th century Europe, reshaping politics and culture. It emphasized loyalty to one's nation, challenging traditional multi-ethnic empires and dynastic rule. This ideology sparked significant upheavals and conflicts across the continent.

Key principles included national sovereignty, self-determination, unity, and pride. Factors like the French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars, and industrialization fueled nationalism's rise. It led to unification movements, revolts, and cultural expressions that transformed Europe's political landscape.

Rise of nationalism in Europe

• Nationalism emerged as a powerful force in 19th century Europe, shaping political, social, and cultural developments across the continent
• The rise of nationalism was closely tied to the ideas of self-determination and the belief that each nation had a unique identity and destiny
• Nationalism challenged the traditional order of multi-ethnic empires and dynastic rule, leading to significant upheavals and conflicts

Defining nationalism

• Nationalism is an ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, and allegiance to one's nation or country above other group affiliations
• Nationalists believe that the nation, often defined by shared language, culture, history, or ethnicity, is the fundamental unit of social and political organization
• Nationalism holds that each nation has the right to self-determination and should have its own sovereign state to protect its interests and express its unique character

Key principles of nationalism

• National sovereignty: the idea that the nation is the ultimate source of political authority and should be free from external interference or control
• National self-determination: the belief that each nation has the right to govern itself and determine its own political, economic, and cultural affairs
• National unity: the emphasis on the shared bonds and common identity that unite the members of a nation, often superseding other social or regional differences
• National pride: the celebration of the nation's unique history, culture, and achievements, and the promotion of patriotic sentiment and loyalty

Factors contributing to nationalism's rise

• The French Revolution and its ideals of popular sovereignty, equality, and self-determination inspired nationalist movements across Europe
• The Napoleonic Wars and their aftermath led to a reawakening of national consciousness and resistance to foreign domination in many European countries
• The growth of vernacular languages and literature, as well as the study of national histories and folklores, contributed to the development of distinct national identities
• Economic changes, such as industrialization and the emergence of a middle class, created new social groups that embraced nationalist ideas as a means of political and social advancement

Nationalism's impact on European politics

• Nationalism became a major force in European politics during the 19th century, shaping the course of revolutions, wars, and diplomatic relations
• Nationalist movements challenged the legitimacy of multi-ethnic empires and sought to create independent nation-states based on the principle of self-determination
• The rise of nationalism led to significant changes in the political map of Europe, with the emergence of new states and the redrawing of borders

Unification movements in Italy and Germany

• Italian nationalists, such as Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, worked to unite the various Italian states into a single nation, leading to the creation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861
• German nationalists, inspired by figures like Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Otto von Bismarck, sought to unify the German states into a single empire, which was achieved through a series of wars and diplomatic maneuvers culminating in the creation of the German Empire in 1871

Nationalist revolts in Austria-Hungary

• The Austrian Empire, later Austria-Hungary, was a multi-ethnic state that faced growing nationalist challenges from its various subject peoples, including Czechs, Hungarians, Poles, and South Slavs
• The Revolutions of 1848 saw nationalist uprisings across the empire, which were suppressed but led to the creation of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867, granting greater autonomy to Hungary
• Nationalist tensions continued to simmer within Austria-Hungary, contributing to its instability and ultimate collapse in the aftermath of World War I

Nationalism's role in Balkan conflicts

• The Balkan region, under the control of the Ottoman Empire, was a hotbed of nationalist activity in the 19th century, with various ethnic groups seeking independence and self-determination
• Nationalist uprisings, such as the Serbian Revolution and the Greek War of Independence, led to the creation of independent states in the Balkans and the gradual decline of Ottoman power
• Nationalist rivalries and territorial disputes in the Balkans, particularly between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, were a major contributing factor to the outbreak of World War I

Cultural expressions of nationalism

• Nationalism found expression not only in politics but also in various cultural forms, such as art, literature, music, and folklore
• Nationalist cultural movements sought to celebrate and promote the unique character and traditions of each nation, often drawing on romanticized visions of the past
• Cultural nationalism played a significant role in shaping national identities and fostering a sense of pride and unity among the members of a nation

Romantic nationalism in art and literature

• Romantic nationalism was a cultural movement that emphasized the unique spirit and character of each nation, often drawing on folk traditions, legends, and landscapes
• Romantic artists and writers, such as Caspar David Friedrich in Germany and Adam Mickiewicz in Poland, celebrated national themes and sought to evoke emotional responses to the nation's beauty and history
• Romantic nationalism influenced the development of national styles in music, such as the works of Frédéric Chopin in Poland and Bedřich Smetana in Bohemia

Linguistic nationalism and vernacular languages

• Language played a central role in the development of national identities, with nationalists promoting the use and study of vernacular languages as a means of asserting cultural distinctiveness
• Linguistic nationalists, such as Jacob Grimm in Germany and Elias Lönnrot in Finland, collected and studied folk tales, legends, and linguistic traditions to help define and celebrate national character
• The promotion of vernacular languages in education, literature, and official use was seen as a way of resisting the cultural dominance of imperial languages like French or German

Nationalist symbolism and iconography

• Nationalists employed various symbols and icons to represent the nation and its unique character, such as flags, coats of arms, national anthems, and monuments
• Nationalist symbols often drew on historical or mythical figures, events, or landmarks that were seen as embodying the nation's spirit and values
• The use of nationalist symbolism in public spaces, such as town squares, government buildings, and schools, helped to reinforce national identity and foster patriotic sentiment

Nationalism and imperialism

• Nationalism and imperialism were closely intertwined in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with European powers using nationalist ideologies to justify their colonial expansions and assert their superiority over other nations
• At the same time, nationalist movements in colonized territories sought to resist imperial rule and assert their own national identities and aspirations for self-determination
• The relationship between nationalism and imperialism was complex and often contradictory, with both forces shaping the course of European and global politics

Nationalism as justification for imperial expansion

• European powers, such as Britain, France, and Germany, often invoked nationalist ideologies to justify their colonial conquests and imperial ambitions
• The idea of the "civilizing mission," which held that European nations had a duty to spread their superior culture and values to other parts of the world, was used to legitimize imperial expansion
• Nationalist pride and competition among European powers also fueled imperial rivalries and the scramble for colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific

Colonial nationalism in European empires

• The experience of colonial rule often fostered the growth of nationalist movements in colonized territories, as local populations sought to assert their own identities and resist foreign domination
• Colonial nationalists, such as Mahatma Gandhi in India and Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam, drew on nationalist ideologies to mobilize popular support for their independence struggles
• The spread of European education and ideas in colonial societies also contributed to the rise of nationalist consciousness and the emergence of new political and intellectual elites

Nationalist resistance to imperial rule

• Nationalist movements in colonized territories often took the form of armed resistance, civil disobedience, or cultural assertion against imperial rule
• Examples of nationalist resistance include the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule, and the Algerian War of Independence against French colonialism
• Nationalist resistance to imperial rule played a significant role in the eventual decolonization of European empires in the mid-20th century and the emergence of new independent nation-states in Africa and Asia

Nationalism and World War I

• Nationalism was a major contributing factor to the outbreak and course of World War I, with nationalist rivalries and tensions among European powers playing a key role in the conflict
• The war also had a significant impact on the development of nationalist movements, both in Europe and in other parts of the world, and helped to reshape the global political landscape

Nationalist tensions as cause of war

• The rise of nationalist tensions in Europe, particularly in the Balkans, was a major factor in the chain of events that led to the outbreak of World War I
• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist in 1914 triggered a series of diplomatic crises and military mobilizations that escalated into a global conflict
• Nationalist rivalries among the great powers, such as Germany's challenge to British naval supremacy and Russia's support for Serbian nationalism, also contributed to the war's outbreak

Wartime nationalist propaganda

• During World War I, governments on all sides used nationalist propaganda to mobilize popular support for the war effort and demonize the enemy
• Nationalist themes, such as the defense of the homeland, the glory of the nation, and the villainy of the enemy, were prominent in wartime posters, songs, and speeches
• The use of nationalist propaganda helped to sustain morale and justify the sacrifices demanded by the war, but also contributed to the brutalization and dehumanization of the conflict

Nationalism's influence on peace settlements

• The aftermath of World War I saw the redrawing of the political map of Europe and the world, with the breakup of multi-ethnic empires and the creation of new nation-states based on the principle of self-determination
• The Paris Peace Conference and the resulting Treaty of Versailles were heavily influenced by nationalist considerations, with the victorious powers seeking to punish Germany and reward their own national interests
• However, the peace settlements also sowed the seeds of future nationalist conflicts, particularly in Eastern Europe and the Middle East, where new borders often failed to reflect the complex ethnic and political realities on the ground

Critiques and challenges to nationalism

• Despite its powerful influence on European politics and culture, nationalism also faced significant critiques and challenges from various quarters, both within Europe and beyond
• Critics of nationalism argued that it was a divisive and exclusionary ideology that promoted conflict, intolerance, and the suppression of individual rights and freedoms
• The rise of alternative ideologies, such as socialism and internationalism, also posed challenges to the dominance of nationalist thinking in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Internationalist and socialist critiques

• Internationalist thinkers, such as Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, argued that nationalism was a bourgeois ideology that divided the working class and prevented the development of a truly global socialist movement
• Socialist and communist parties often rejected nationalism in favor of class solidarity and the goal of world revolution, seeing the nation-state as an obstacle to human emancipation
• The outbreak of World War I, which pitted socialist parties against each other in support of their respective national war efforts, was a major blow to the internationalist vision and led to a split in the socialist movement

Minority nationalisms within European states

• The rise of dominant nationalist movements in Europe often led to the marginalization or suppression of minority national groups within the borders of existing states
• Minority nationalists, such as the Basques in Spain, the Irish in the United Kingdom, and the Ukrainians in Austria-Hungary and Russia, sought to assert their own national identities and rights to self-determination
• The challenges posed by minority nationalisms often led to conflict and instability within European states, and remain a significant issue in many parts of the continent today

Nationalism vs. emerging ideologies of 20th century

• The early 20th century saw the emergence of new political ideologies, such as fascism and totalitarianism, which posed significant challenges to traditional nationalist thinking
• Fascist movements, such as those in Italy and Germany, often co-opted nationalist rhetoric and symbols but subordinated the nation to the state and the leader, promoting a more aggressive and expansionist vision of national power
• The rise of Soviet communism and its internationalist ideology also posed a challenge to nationalism, particularly in Eastern Europe and the developing world, where communist parties often sought to suppress or co-opt nationalist movements
• The ideological conflicts of the 20th century, culminating in World War II and the Cold War, would have a profound impact on the development of nationalism and its relationship to other political forces in Europe and beyond