American imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a shift from continental expansion to global influence. Driven by economic interests, cultural superiority beliefs, and strategic goals, the U.S. acquired territories like Puerto Rico and the Philippines.

This expansionist era saw the U.S. emerge as a world power, building naval bases and implementing policies like the Open Door in China. However, it also sparked debates about American values and the treatment of indigenous populations in newly acquired territories.

Motivations for American Imperialism

Manifest Destiny and Divine Right

• The concept of Manifest Destiny asserted that the United States had a divine right to expand across the North American continent
• This belief served as a significant motivator for American expansionism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
• Manifest Destiny was rooted in the idea that American culture, values, and institutions were superior and destined to spread across the continent

Economic and Strategic Interests

• The desire to establish naval bases and coaling stations to support American merchant ships and the U.S. Navy was a key factor in the acquisition of overseas territories
  • These bases and stations were crucial for protecting American commercial interests and projecting naval power abroad
• The Spanish-American War of 1898 was a turning point in American foreign policy, leading to the acquisition of territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines
  • These territories provided strategic locations for American military bases and expanded American influence in the Caribbean and the Pacific
• The Open Door Policy aimed to secure equal trading rights for all nations in China, exemplifying American efforts to expand economic influence in Asia

Cultural Superiority and "White Man's Burden"

• The belief in the superiority of American culture and the "white man's burden" to civilize and Christianize non-white populations was used to justify imperialist actions
• This belief was rooted in ideas of racial hierarchy and the presumed duty of white Americans to uplift and govern supposedly inferior races
• The construction of the Panama Canal, completed in 1914, was seen as a significant achievement of American expansionism and a symbol of American technological and cultural superiority
  • The canal facilitated trade and naval power projection, demonstrating American engineering prowess and strategic reach

Factors Contributing to American Imperialism

Economic Interests and Industrialization

• The rapid industrialization of the United States in the late 19th century created a need for new markets and sources of raw materials, driving economic expansionism
  • American businesses sought access to foreign markets to sell their goods and secure reliable sources of resources (rubber, tin, sugar)
• The political influence of business interests, such as the United Fruit Company in Central America, often shaped American foreign policy decisions
  • These companies lobbied for government support and intervention to protect their investments and maintain favorable conditions for their operations

Intellectual and Cultural Justifications

• The rise of Social Darwinism, which applied the concept of "survival of the fittest" to nations and races, provided an intellectual justification for imperialism
  • Social Darwinists argued that competition between nations and races was natural and that the strongest and most advanced societies would dominate others
• The cultural belief in the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization and the duty to spread American values and institutions abroad was a significant driver of imperialist policies
  • This belief was reflected in the idea of the "white man's burden," which held that white Americans had a moral obligation to civilize and govern non-white populations

Political and Military Factors

• The emergence of the United States as a global naval power, exemplified by the modernization of the U.S. Navy under Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan, enabled the projection of American power overseas
  • Mahan argued that a strong navy was essential for protecting American commerce and securing overseas markets and territories
• The Spanish-American War and the acquisition of overseas territories marked a shift in American political thought, from isolationism to a more active role in world affairs
  • The war demonstrated American military capabilities and fueled public enthusiasm for expansionism and the acquisition of colonies (Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam)

Impact of American Imperialism on Territories

Political and Social Changes

• The acquisition of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines following the Spanish-American War brought these territories under American control, leading to significant changes in their political, economic, and social structures
  • American-style governance, laws, and institutions were imposed on these territories, often displacing or marginalizing local systems and leaders
• The U.S. governance of the Philippines was marked by the suppression of indigenous resistance, such as the Philippine-American War (1899-1902), and the imposition of American-style institutions and education
  • The war resulted in the deaths of thousands of Filipinos and the establishment of an American colonial government that aimed to "civilize" and "Americanize" the population
• The annexation of Hawaii in 1898 led to the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy and the marginalization of native Hawaiian culture and land rights
  • American settlers and business interests, particularly in the sugar industry, played a significant role in the annexation and the transformation of Hawaiian society

Economic and Labor Impacts

• American economic interests, such as the United Fruit Company in Central America, often led to the support of authoritarian regimes and the suppression of labor movements in the region
  • These companies benefited from favorable land concessions, low wages, and the suppression of labor organizing, often at the expense of local populations
• The construction of the Panama Canal involved the displacement of indigenous populations and the importation of a large, primarily West Indian labor force, leading to significant demographic changes in the Canal Zone
  • The harsh working conditions and segregated labor system in the Canal Zone reinforced racial hierarchies and economic inequalities

Limitations on Sovereignty

• The Platt Amendment (1901) granted the United States the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and establish a naval base at Guantanamo Bay, limiting Cuban sovereignty and independence
  • The amendment ensured American control over Cuban foreign policy and gave the U.S. a permanent military presence on the island
• The U.S. exercised significant control over the economies and governments of its territories, often prioritizing American interests over local needs and aspirations
  • This control limited the ability of these territories to pursue independent development and self-determination

Debates over American Imperialism

Anti-Imperialist Arguments

• The Anti-Imperialist League, formed in 1898, argued that the acquisition of overseas territories violated American principles of self-government and would lead to the corruption of American democracy
  • The league believed that the Constitution did not permit the U.S. to govern people without their consent and that imperialism would undermine American democratic ideals
• Critics of imperialism, such as Mark Twain and William Jennings Bryan, argued that the suppression of indigenous populations and the imposition of American rule abroad were incompatible with American values of liberty and democracy
  • Twain's essay "To the Person Sitting in Darkness" (1901) satirized American imperialist hypocrisy and the exploitation of foreign peoples

Political Divisions and Dissent

• The Democratic Party, particularly during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson, was more skeptical of imperialist policies and advocated for greater respect for the sovereignty of other nations
  • Wilson's Fourteen Points, presented after World War I, emphasized the principles of self-determination and the peaceful resolution of international disputes
• The Philippines-American War sparked domestic debate about the morality and legality of suppressing Philippine independence movements and imposing American colonial rule
  • The war was criticized by anti-imperialists as a betrayal of American principles and a cruel subjugation of the Filipino people

Concerns over Expansion of Federal Power

• The annexation of Hawaii was opposed by some Americans who viewed it as a violation of Hawaiian sovereignty and a betrayal of American anti-monarchical principles
  • Critics argued that the U.S. had no right to overthrow a sovereign government and annex a foreign territory without the consent of its people
• The growth of the American empire abroad raised concerns about the increasing power of the federal government and the potential for the militarization of American society
  • Some Americans feared that the pursuit of imperialism would lead to the concentration of power in the hands of the federal government and the erosion of individual liberties and democratic accountability