The end of Spanish rule marked a pivotal shift in the Southwest. Mexico's independence in 1821 brought new challenges and opportunities to the region. Political instability, economic struggles, and cultural clashes shaped this transitional period.

Mexican authority faced hurdles in the vast, sparsely populated Southwest. Tensions with indigenous tribes, American settlers, and the U.S. government strained Mexico's control. These factors set the stage for future conflicts and territorial changes in the borderlands.

Mexico's Independence from Spain

Intellectual and Political Influences

• The Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions inspired ideas of liberty, equality, and self-governance among Mexican Creoles (American-born Spaniards)
• The Bourbon Reforms of the late 18th century centralized power in Spain, limited Creole influence in colonial governance, and increased taxes, leading to growing discontent among Mexican Creoles
• The Napoleonic Wars weakened Spain's control over its colonies, providing an opportunity for Mexican independence movements to gain traction

Key Figures and Events in the Independence Movement

• Father Miguel Hidalgo's "Grito de Dolores" in 1810 sparked the Mexican War of Independence, which was initially supported by indigenous people and mestizos seeking social and economic reforms
• After Hidalgo's execution in 1811, the independence movement was led by José María Morelos, who advocated for the abolition of slavery and racial distinctions
  • Morelos convened the Congress of Chilpancingo in 1813, which declared Mexico's independence and drafted a constitution
  • Despite Morelos' capture and execution in 1815, the independence movement continued under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria
• The Plan of Iguala, proposed by Agustín de Iturbide in 1821, united conservative and liberal factions and ultimately led to Mexico's independence from Spain
  • The plan called for an independent constitutional monarchy, the protection of the Catholic Church, and equality for all social classes
  • Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees (religion, independence, and unity) successfully fought the remaining Spanish forces, leading to the Treaty of Córdoba and Mexico's independence in September 1821

Challenges for New Mexico

Political Instability and Regional Tensions

• The Mexican government struggled to establish a stable political system, oscillating between federalism and centralism, which led to regional tensions and separatist movements
  • The Constitution of 1824 established a federal republic, but centralist factions repeatedly attempted to overturn the system
  • Regional leaders, such as Antonio López de Santa Anna, exploited the instability to seize power and impose centralist policies
• The vast size and low population density of the Southwest made it difficult for the Mexican government to effectively administer and defend the region
  • The distance between the Southwest and the central government in Mexico City hindered communication and the implementation of policies
  • The sparse population made it challenging to raise sufficient tax revenue and recruit soldiers for defense

Economic and Social Challenges

• The Mexican government lacked the financial resources to develop the Southwest's infrastructure and economy, limiting its ability to integrate the region into the nation
  • The government struggled to fund projects such as road construction, irrigation systems, and mining operations
  • The lack of economic development contributed to the region's isolation and dependence on subsistence agriculture and trade with the United States
• The increasing presence of American settlers in Texas, who often disregarded Mexican laws and customs, posed a challenge to Mexican authority in the region
  • Many American settlers refused to convert to Catholicism, learn Spanish, or abide by Mexican laws regarding slavery and land ownership
  • The growing American population in Texas, coupled with their desire for greater autonomy, led to tensions with the Mexican government and ultimately the Texas Revolution (1835-1836)
• Conflicts between Mexican officials and indigenous tribes, such as the Comanche and Apache, hindered Mexico's control over the Southwest
  • Indigenous tribes resisted Mexican encroachment on their lands and resources, leading to frequent raids and skirmishes
  • The Mexican government's inability to effectively negotiate with or subdue these tribes undermined its authority in the region

Strained Relations with the United States

• The Mexican government's attempts to restrict American immigration and regulate the activities of foreign merchants in the Southwest strained relations with the United States
  • The Mexican government sought to limit American influence in the region by implementing stricter immigration policies and tariffs on American goods
  • American politicians and businessmen viewed these measures as a threat to their economic interests and manifest destiny, leading to increased tensions between the two nations
  • The United States' annexation of Texas in 1845 and the subsequent Mexican-American War (1846-1848) resulted in Mexico losing a significant portion of its northern territory, including the Southwest

Southwest under Mexican Rule

Political and Administrative Changes

• Under Mexican rule, the Southwest was divided into several states and territories, including Texas, New Mexico, and Alta California, each with its own government and legislature
  • The Mexican Constitution of 1824 established a federal system of government, granting a degree of autonomy to the states and territories in the Southwest
  • Each state had its own elected governor, legislature, and judicial system, while the territories were governed by federally appointed officials
• The centralist policies of Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna in the 1830s, such as the repeal of the 1824 Constitution and the dissolution of state legislatures, led to growing unrest and resistance in the Southwest
  • Santa Anna's centralist policies aimed to consolidate power in the national government and reduce the autonomy of the states and territories
  • The centralist measures sparked rebellions in several states, including Texas, which declared its independence in 1836

Social and Economic Reforms

• The Mexican government secularized the Spanish mission system in the 1830s, redistributing mission lands to indigenous people and Mexican settlers, and reducing the influence of the Catholic Church in the region
  • The Secularization Act of 1833 ordered the distribution of mission lands to indigenous people and Mexican settlers, aiming to promote economic development and reduce the power of the missions
  • The secularization process was often mismanaged, with many indigenous people losing their lands to wealthy Mexican landowners (hacendados)
• The Mexican government implemented the General Colonization Law of 1824, which encouraged immigration to the Southwest by offering land grants to Mexican citizens and foreign settlers who met certain requirements
  • The law aimed to populate the sparsely settled regions of the Southwest and promote economic development
  • Settlers were required to be Catholic, obey Mexican laws, and cultivate the land for a specified period to receive title to their land grants
• In 1829, Mexico abolished slavery, which had a significant impact on the social and economic structures in the Southwest, particularly in Texas where many American settlers owned slaves
  • The abolition of slavery was a contentious issue, as many American settlers in Texas had brought slaves with them and relied on slave labor for their economic activities
  • The Mexican government's enforcement of the abolition decree contributed to the growing tensions between American settlers and Mexican authorities in Texas